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* Laboratorio di Neurobiologia, Scuola Normale Superiore, Pisa, Italy;
Istituto di Neuroscienze del CNR, Pisa, Italy; and
Dipartimento di Psicologia, Università di Firenze, Florence, Italy
1Correspondence: Scuola Normale Superiore c/o Istituto di Neuroscienze del CNR, Via G. Moruzzi, 1, 56100 Pisa, Italy. E-mail: landi{at}in.cnr.it
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ABSTRACT |
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 TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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Key Words: retina • visual acuity • pattern electroretinogram • brain derived neurotrophic factor
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INTRODUCTION |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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, 2
, 3)
. However, it has been shown that DR alters inner retina development in mice (4
, 5
, 6)
, preventing the segregation of the ON and OFF pathways, both at electrophysiological and anatomical level.
We have recently found that environmental enrichment (EE) affects visual cortical development and plasticity (7)
and prevents DR effects (8)
. We considered that EE, which so powerfully affects visual cortical development, was a paradigm suitable to probe the actual sensitivity of retinal development to experience and to gain insight on the factors involved.
To understand whether retinal functional development is a target of EE and to compare EE effects on cortical and retinal development, we have monitored the development of cortical responses with visual evoked potentials (VEPs) and retinal responses using pattern electroretinogram (P-ERG). P-ERG is a sensitive measure of the function of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs), the very output of retinal circuitry (9)
. Our results show that both retinal acuity and cortical acuity development are sensitive to EE on the same time scale. In particular, retinal acuity development is strongly accelerated in rats enriched from birth (EE rats) with respect to non-enriched (non-EE) rats, and this accelerated retinal development in EE animals is found also in rats exposed to EE only for the first 10 days of life, that is, before eye opening.
In the adult, EE is known to affect the expression of many factors, both peripherally and in the central nervous system (CNS), which could mediate its well-known effects on neural plasticity (10
, 11
, 12)
. Which factors are affected by EE during development are less known. We have recently found that EE increases the expression of brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) in the developing visual cortex (7)
. BDNF is an important factor in retinal development, controlling the development of subtypes of amacrine cells (13
, 14
, 15)
and regulating ganglion cell morphological maturation, both at the level of the dendrites and of the axonal terminal (16)
. We have investigated BDNF’s possible involvement in retinal plasticity in response to EE. Our results show that BDNF protein is precociously increased in the RGC layer of developing EE rats. Blocking BDNF expression in the retina during this window of enhanced expression by means of antisense oligonucleotides counteracts the precocious development of retinal acuity in EE animals.
Our data show that EE accelerates the maturation of RGC functional properties and that this effect requires retinal BDNF action.
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MATERIALS AND METHODS |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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Long-Evans hooded rats lived in an animal house with a temperature of 21°C, 12:12-h light-dark cycle, and food and water were available ad libitum. Female subjects were put with males (one male for every mating cage) in standard cages for reproduction (60x40x20 cm). At least 7 days before delivery, pregnant females were transferred to an enriched or standard cage; with this procedure, both enriched and standard females received equivalent levels of stress deriving from cage transfer during pregnancy. No difference in gestation time was detected in the two experimental conditions (7)
.
EE consisted of a large wire mesh cage (at least 60x50x80 cm) with two to three floors containing several foodhoppers, two running wheels (one bigger for adults, the other for postweaning pups), and differently shaped objects (tunnels, shelters, stairs) that were completely substituted with others once a week. At least two or three pregnant mothers were put into the enriched cage with four or five filler females. Cages for standard environment (non-EE) were standard laboratory cages (30x40x20 cm) housing one dam with her pups as established by the Italian law for the care of laboratory animals. After birth, all of the litters were housed with their mother until postnatal day 45.
Eye-opening observations
From postnatal day 8, pups (n=45 pups for EE, n=33 pups for non-EE) were inspected for eye-opening twice a day at 
8 AM and 7 PM. Eye-opening was defined as the initial break in the membrane sealing the lids of both eyes. The eyes of all of the animals in this study were clear and without obvious optical anomalies. Optics were checked with an ophthalmoscope and were completely transparent from P19, age of beginning of our electrophysiological recordings.
In particular, we checked optics in rats with forced eye opening, finding it clear in all of them. That the application of this experimental paradigm did not produce a retinal damage in our animals is further supported by the fact that retinal acuity in rats with forced eye opening is the same as that of standard animals at the same age.
Electrophysiological assessment of retinal and cortical acuity
A total of 148 rats [animals non-enriched (non-EE): n = 63; enriched (EE): n = 57; rats with a forced eye-opening at P10 (EO-P10): n = 5; enriched and dark reared between P10 and P14 (EE(DR_P10–P14)): n = 5; enriched until P10 (EEuntilP10): n = 6; enriched treated with BDNF antisense oligonucleotides (EE-AS): n = 7; enriched treated with BDNF sense (EE-S): n = 5] was used for electrophysiology. Rats were anesthetized with an intraperitoneal (i.p.) injection of 20% urethane (0.7 ml/hg; Sigma, St. Louis, MO) and mounted on a stereotaxic apparatus allowing full viewing of the visual stimulus. Additional doses of urethane (0.03–0.05 ml/hg) were used to keep anesthesia level stable throughout the experiment.
During electrophysiology, the body temperature of rats was monitored with a rectal probe and maintained at 37.0°C with a heating pad. Visual stimuli were horizontal sinusoidal gratings of different spatial frequency and contrast generated by a VSG2/2 card (Cambridge Research System, Cheshire, UK) and presented on a computer display (mean luminance=10 candles/m2; area, 24x26 cm) placed 20 cm in front of the animal. To analyze the contribution of the different phases of EE to the development of retinal acuity, one enriched mother with its offspring born in EE was transferred at P10 in a standard environment.
Recordings were always made in blind in relation to the animal’s rearing condition to avoid subjective judgments of the experimenter.
Pattern electroretinogram
Pattern electroretinogram (P-ERG) was recorded as done previously (17, 18). The stereotaxic apparatus was oriented with an angle of 40° as respect to the position of the screen; P-ERG electrodes were small silver rings positioned on the corneal surface by means of a microelectrode drive, so as to avoid occlusion of the pupil. Visual stimuli were sinusoidal gratings alternated in phase with a fixed temporal frequency of 4 Hz. Steady-state recorded signals were filtered (0.1–100 Hz) and amplified in a conventional manner, computer averaged, and analyzed; 15 packets of 20 sums each (300 events) were averaged for each stimulus spatial frequency, changing randomly the spatial frequency from one record to another. For each spatial frequency, the amplitude of the P-ERG signal was taken as the amplitude of the second harmonic in the averaged signal, calculated by a fast Fourier transform; the P-ERG amplitude decreases with increasing spatial frequency (17
, 19)
. The noise level was estimated by measuring the amplitude of the second harmonic in records where the stimulus was a blank field. Retinal acuity was taken as the highest spatial frequency still evoking a response above noise level.
Visual evoked potentials
VEPs were recorded as done previously (20)
. Briefly, a large portion of the skull overlying the binocular visual cortex was drilled and removed taking away the dura. A glass micropipette (2–2.5 M
) was inserted into the binocular primary visual cortex (Oc1B; 21) in correspondence of the vertical meridian representation. Electrical signals were amplified, bandpass filtered (0.1–120 Hz), and averaged (at least 60 events in blocks of 10 events each) in synchrony with the stimulus contrast reversal. Transient VEPs in response to abrupt contrast reversal (0.5–1 Hz) were evaluated in the time domain by measuring the peak-to-baseline amplitude and peak latency of the major component. VEPs in response to a blank field were also frequently recorded to have an estimate of the noise. For each animal, VEP amplitude was plotted as a function of log spatial frequency, and visual acuity was determined by linearly extrapolating VEP amplitude to 0 V.
Retinal BDNF expression in EE vs. non-EE rats
BDNF immunohistochemistry
Four animals were used for each experimental group (P7, P10, P15) and the retinas were fixed in 4% paraformaldehyde in 0.1 PBS (pH=7.4) and cryoprotected in 30% sucrose. For BDNF coronal retinal sections (25 µm thick) were cut using a cryostat and then processed as follows. After a blocking step, sections were permeabilized in 0.01% Triton X-100 and incubated in 1:400 anti-human BDNF antibody (Ab) (Promega). Bound Ab was detected by incubating sections with byotinylated rabbit anti-chicken IgG (1:200, Promega) followed by fluorescein-conjugated extravidin (1:300, Sigma). Images of RGC portions were acquired at 20x magnification using a Zeiss HR Axiocam video camera connected to a Zeiss Axiophot microscope and digitized by Axiovision software. To compare different specimens, the time of exposure was optimized at the start and then held constant throughout image acquisition. Then, the collected images of the retina were imported to the image analysis system MetaMorph and used to evaluate pixel intensity of cellular immunofluorescence. All image analyses were done blind. The profile of cells into RGC layer was outlined, and the pixel intensity was measured within this area. BDNF immunoreactivity levels were calculated as the ratio between the pixel intensity of RGC profiles and the background level, measured in the outer nuclear layer (ONL). Values obtained from at least 8–10 retinal fields were used to calculate the average pixel intensity value per animal.
BDNF ELISA
We have attempted to measure BDNF protein content in the retina of EE and non-EE rats at P10, when a difference was evident from the immunohistochemical data. BDNF protein levels were assessed by means of ELISA (Promega, BDNF Emax Immunoassay System). We choose the ELISA technique in view of its high sensitivity, as it is known that endogenous BDNF amounts are around the range of few picograms in the postnatal rodent retina (22
23
24)
. Indeed, BDNF is produced only by cells in the ganglion cell layer, primarily by retinal ganglion cells (25
, 26)
and as such, the BDNF protein revealed by immunohistochemistry is diluted in the process of protein extraction, performed on the whole fresh retinas. We collected n = 128 retinas for non-EE animals and n = 134 retinas for EE animals and pooled them in five different samples for non-EE and for EE animals, respectively (
26–27 retinas per sample).
We performed protein extraction according to Promega protocol. Unfortunately, at this developmental age, BDNF retinal quantities resulted outside the reliable range of BDNF ELISA Promega kit.
Intraocular injections of oligonucleotides
For the study of the role of the neurotrophin BDNF on the maturation of retinal acuity in EE animals, EE rats received intraocular injections of BDNF antisense or sense phosphorothioate oligonucleotides (Eurogentec, 500 µM; injection vol: at P6, 500 nl and at P9 1,000 nl, according the size of the eye camera; estimated oligo concentration in the eye: 25 µM, (27)
).
Antisense oligonucleotides have been previously used in various tissues, including retinal tissue, as therapeutic agents, and as research tools for down-regulating certain genes (28
29
30
31)
. Antisense oligonucleotides can be successfully introduced into the retina intravitreally (28
, 32
, 30)
; they appear to penetrate in the entire thickness of the retina and, in particular, in RGC layer and are found intracellularly in retinal ganglion cells (32
, 30)
. Moreover, recent findings from our laboratory (27
, 23)
have demonstrated that intraocular injection of BDNF antisense oligos reduces retinal expression of BDNF in P9 and P26-P27 rats.
Injections were performed under ether anesthesia at P6 and P9, that is, in correspondence with the period of enhanced BDNF protein levels in EE animals (see
Fig. 4
).
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Intraocular injections of BDNF sense and antisense oligos were performed using a glass micropipette inserted at the ora serrata connected to an Hamilton syringe. Sequences of the BDNF antisense—to reduce BDNF mRNA translation—and sense oligonucleotides (targeted to the BDNF translation initiation codon) were 5'-CATCACTCTTCTCACCTGGTGGAAC-3' and 5'-GTTCCACCAGGTGAGAAGAGTGATG-3', which correspond to nucleotides 51–75 of the BDNF mRNA and are the same used by (27)
and (23)
to effectively reduce BDNF levels in the developing rat retina.
Fully phosphorothioate oligonucleotides were dissolved in saline with stock solutions of 1 mM. Stock solutions were preserved at –80°C and diluted in saline at the desired concentration at the time of the injection. To document whether intraocular oligo injections decreased BDNF expression, we adopted the same strategy used by (27)
, performing immunohistochemistry on retinas from untreated (n=3), sense (n=3) and antisense (n=4) injected rats 48 h after the last injection.
P-ERG recordings were made at P25 and P26, and retinal acuity was determined for each oligo-injected EE animal, as described previously. Seven EE rats were intraocularly injected with antisense oligos in one eye, while the other eye was left untreated. In these animals, P-ERG recordings from both eyes were made at P25-P26 in order to compare in the same EE animal the retinal acuity of the normal eye and of the eye with decreased BDNF levels. Five EE rats were intraocularly injected with sense oligos and P-ERG recorded from that eye at P25-P26 allow us to control for the aspecific effects of oligo injections.
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RESULTS |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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).
Retinal acuity in adult rats is 0.87 ± 0.02 cycles per degree (c/deg) (18)
. At P19–20, retinal acuity is around 0.49 c/deg in non-EE rats and rapidly increases with age; the adult value is reached at P44–45: at this age, P-ERG acuity is 0.84 ± 0.02 c/deg and does not differ from the value obtained in P60 rats, (0.83±0.03 c/deg, n=4).
In EE animals, P-ERG acuity at P19–20 does not differ from that in non-EE animals; however, as evident in Fig. 1C
, EE clearly accelerates P-ERG acuity developmental time course. Starting from P25–26 up to P34–35, retinal acuity is significantly higher in EE than in non-EE rats and becomes no longer significant from the final adult value in EE rats at P34–35 (P60 EE rats, 0.89±0.02 c/deg, n=5). Thus, the final acuity level is reached almost 10 days before in EE than in non-EE rats. From P44–45 onward P-ERG acuity does not differ between EE rats and non-EE rats, indicating that EE affects the developmental time course of retinal acuity but not its final level (two-way ANOVA, housing per age, P < 0.001, post hoc Tukey’s test). The acceleration in the development of retinal acuity produced by EE is particularly evident, normalizing mean retinal acuity for each age group to the respective mean final value (Fig. 1D
).
Thus, retinal development is sensitive to the experience provided by an enriched environment.
We then performed an analysis of cortical acuity development in EE and non-EE rats by means of visual evoked potentials (VEPs). We found that environmental enrichment strongly accelerates cortical development, with VEP acuity in EE rats overtaking that of non-EE rats at P25-P26, as for P-ERG acuity development (Fig. 1, E and F
).
Accelerated retinal acuity development in EE animals is induced during early phases of enrichment, and precocious eye opening is not responsible
EE rats open their eyes two days before non-EE rats (Fig. 2
A). We asked whether the precocious eye opening observed in EE rats gives a contribution to the accelerated retinal development (Fig. 2)
. To answer this question, we made two different experiments.
In the first one, we made a forced eye opening at P10 in non-EE rats (eye opening at P10, EO-P10) and recorded retinal acuity at P25-P26; we found that retinal acuity is not affected by this procedure (Fig. 2C
; non-EE: 0.51±0.01 c/deg; EO-P10: 0.56±0.02 c/deg, difference not significant). Thus, a precocious visual experience is not sufficient to mimic the increase in acuity seen in EE animals at P25-P26.
In the second experiment, we kept animals enriched from birth in a dark room from P10 to P14 [EE(DR_P10–14) rats] in order to abolish their advantage in visual experience due to the precocious eye opening; we have found that at P25-P26, the acuity of this experimental group (0.65±0.03 c/deg) does not differ from that of EE group (Fig. 2C
). Thus, precocious eye opening is not necessary for the accelerated maturation of retinal acuity produced by an enriched environment.
Our EE animals are enriched from birth until adulthood. To understand whether the effects of EE on retinal development stemmed from events caused by EE at an early or at a late postnatal age, we reared animals in EE until P10 and then transferred them to a standard environment at P10 (EEuntilP10; Fig. 3
A). P-ERG recordings at P25-P26 revealed that at this age EEuntilP10 rats had the same retinal acuity of EE animals enriched up to P25-P26 (see Fig. 3B
; 0.64±0.03 c/deg; one-way ANOVA, P=0.017), showing that EE until P10 induces the same retinal functional maturation seen in animals exposed to EE until P25–26.
This suggests that factors influenced by EE and sufficient to trigger rat retinal acuity development are affected during the first 10 days of life.
BDNF role in retinal maturation of EE animals
BDNF is an important factor in RGC development, regulating both their morphological and functional maturation (14)
. We have investigated whether EE affected BDNF protein expression in the developing retina, focusing on the ganglion cell layer. In normal rats, BDNF protein level is very low before P14 (26, Fig. 4
A); in EE animals, BDNF immunoreactivity is detectable in the RGC layer already at P7, and at P10, it is significantly higher than in non-EE rats (two-way ANOVA, housing per age, post hoc Tukey’s test, Fig. 4B
). Thus, EE causes a precocious BDNF development in the RGC layer.
To investigate whether the precocious expression of BDNF in EE animals is necessary for the accelerated maturation of retinal acuity caused by EE, we reduced BDNF levels in EE animals during the time window of its enhanced expression by intraocularly injecting BDNF antisense oligonucleotides having the same sequence as that previously employed to reduce BDNF protein levels in the developing rat retina (27
, 23)
.
We first tested whether BDNF antisense oligos reduce BDNF expression in the retina of EE rats by immunohistochemistry. EE rats were intraocularly injected with BDNF antisense (EE-AS, n=4) or sense oligos (EE-S, n=3) at P6 and P9, and 48 h after the last injection the eyes were removed and processed for BDNF immunohistochemistry. The retinas from 3 untreated P11 EE rats were used as controls. We found, as previously shown with the same oligo sequence by (27)
and (23)
that BDNF antisense oligos decrease BDNF expression with respect to controls (Fig. 5
A), whereas the sense oligos do not (one-way ANOVA, P=0.001).
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We then treated a group of EE animals by means of intraocular injections of BDNF antisense oligonucleotides (EE-AS, n=7) and another group by means of BDNF sense oligonucleotides as controls (EE-S, n=5) at P6 and P9 and recorded P-ERG at P25–26. We found (Fig. 5B
) that retinal acuity in EE-S rats did not differ from that of EE rats (0.63±0.01 c/deg), whereas acuity in EE-AS animals was significantly lower than in EE rats and did not differ from that of non-EE rats of the same age (0.49±0.01 c/deg; one-way ANOVA, P=0.001). It is important to underline that we were able to make an internal comparison in the development of the retinal acuity in six of the EE-AS rats, in which one eye was treated with BDNF antisense oligos and the other was left untreated. In these animals (Fig. 5C
), we have recorded visual acuity for both eyes, the antisense treated and the untreated; in all cases visual acuity in the treated eye was lower than in the untreated eye (EE-AS rat 1: 0.53 vs. 0.64 c/deg; EE-AS rat 2: 0.5 c/deg vs. 0.73 c/deg; EE-AS rat 3: 0.48 vs. 0.65 c/deg; EE-AS rat 4: 0.54 vs. 0.64 c/deg; EE-AS rat 5: 0.52 vs. 0.67 c/deg; EE-AS rat 6: 0.44 vs. 0.63 c/deg), and there was a statistically significant difference between the two groups of retinal acuity values (paired t test, P=0.001).
Thus, the reduction of retinal BDNF blocks the effects of EE on the RGC functional maturation analyzed by means of P-ERG.
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DISCUSSION |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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The acceleration in visual acuity determined by enrichment is not dependent on vision since EE is effective in causing it before P10 (that is before eye opening) and forced eye opening at P10 is not. This is in line with previous findings that show that it is possible to modulate the outcome of visual deprivations by varying the environmental conditions (8)
or the availability of BDNF to cortical neurons (33)
. These data suggest that developmental factors that are not under visual experience control may contribute to visual system development.
There are several molecules important for nervous system development and plasticity that are modified by EE in adult animals (11
, 34)
. The results that 10 days of enrichment are sufficient to induce an accelerated retinal functional maturation equal to that observed after a period of enrichment prolonged until P45 suggest that EE acts on molecular factors, the expression of which is influenced precociously, when pups are still immobile and dependent on the mother.
In the work of Cancedda and co-authors (7)
, we have found that BDNF protein level is enhanced precociously (P7) in the visual cortex of enriched mice. Our results on BDNF development in the RGC layer show that the expression of this neurotrophin is precociously affected by EE also in the retina, suggesting that BDNF could be one of the molecular factors that EE acts upon to prime P-ERG acuity development.
Even if the increase of BDNF has been always associated with physical exercise (11)
, the study of Liu (35)
shows that high levels of maternal care enhance BDNF mRNA expression in rat hippocampus. We have recently shown that different levels of maternal care are found in EE (36)
. Thus, enhanced levels of maternal care induced by EE could justify our results for BDNF expression in the retina.
The results obtained by injecting BDNF antisense oligos in the eye of EE rats clearly show that BDNF is a key molecule in the retinal functional development driven by EE since its reduction in the retina during the time window of its enhanced expression blocks the retinal functional development seen in EE animals.
Despite the fact that a clear role for BDNF has emerged in the developmental regulation of RGC dendritic and axonal arborization in vivo (37
, 38)
and in the preservation of retinal function in models of retinal degeneration (39)
, we have provided for the first time a direct demonstration of BDNF involvement in the functional development of retinal circuitry in vivo.
In the vertebrate retina, several studies have shown that TrkB is expressed primarily by amacrine cells and retinal ganglion cells (40)
and in green-red sensitive cones (41)
; therefore, a large number of retinal cells is potentially responsive to BDNF. Indeed, it is known that initial expression of TrkB in rodent retina is in RGCs and in the developing IPL at P0 followed by the expression in the INL, OPL, and Muller cells by P6 and later (42)
.
BDNF could act directly on RGCs; in particular, BDNF might play a role in the activation of functional NMDA receptors (43)
and in the developmental expression of specific ionic channels necessary for repetitive firing (44)
in early retinal ganglion cell development. Many findings have demonstrated that BDNF shapes RGC dendritic morphology (45
, 46
, 47
, 48)
. Interestingly, it has been shown that locally released BDNF can have an autocrine/paracrine action on RGCs, promoting the retraction of RGC dendritic arborization in Xenopus tadpoles (49)
. However, it is not clear whether there is a correspondence between the development of dendritic arborization and the maturation of receptive field size and consequently of retinal acuity. In turtle, it has been observed that experimental manipulations that modify spontaneous activity in vivo not only affect receptive field properties but also alter the dendritic arborizations of RGCs (50)
. However, an old work by Rusoff and Dubin (51)
in kittens reported that there is no correlation between the dendritic field and the receptive field development in RGCs; indeed, receptive fields of RGCs in kittens are larger than in adults but RGC dendritic arborizations are smaller, suggesting that the progressive decrease in receptive field size is paralleled by an increase in RGC dendritic field with development. However, although the contribution of the shaping of RGC dendritic arborizations to the maturation of their receptive fields needs further elucidation, we do not exclude the possibility that a remodeling action of retinal BDNF on RGC dendrites may contribute to the P-ERG acuity maturation. Indeed, the increased levels of retinal BDNF may guide the maturation of RGC receptive fields by a selective pruning of RGC dendritic arborizations. This dendritic structural elaboration within areas where presynaptic terminals are located may reorganize the spatial distribution of synapses, contributing to the maturation of the center-surround ganglion cell organization.
Moreover, it is known that the spatial tuning of RGCs depends not only on processes in the outer retina but also on processes performed in the inner retina by amacrine cells and, in particular, by GABAergic amacrine cells (52
, 53
, 54)
. GABAergic amacrine cells are a heterogeneous population, colocalizing other neuroactive substances, such as peptides or classical neurotransmitters (55
, 56
, 57
, 58)
. Dopaminergic amacrine cells, which also express GABA (59
, 56)
and form both dopaminergic and GABAergic synapses onto other amacrine cells (57)
, are responsive to BDNF. They express TrkB (40)
, and their development is accelerated by BDNF intraocular injections from P8 to P14 (13)
. Dopaminergic amacrine cells have been shown to contribute to the spatial organization of the receptive fields of RGCs (59
, 60)
. In addition, it has been suggested that retinal dopamine level affects visual acuity development: children with phenylketonuria who experienced very high phenylalanine levels in the first postnatal days and who should therefore have particularly low levels of dopamine in the retina, have lower than normal visual acuity (61)
. It is conceivable that an accelerated development of amacrine dopaminergic cells promoted by the higher retinal BDNF levels in enriched animals could contribute to the accelerated retinal acuity development observed in EE rats.
Other subtypes of amacrine cells also respond to BDNF during development as documented by changes in the expression of neuropeptides colocalizing with GABA (14
, 15)
. Thus, BDNF could contribute to the accelerated retinal acuity development found in EE animals also through an action of these amacrine cells. It has to be reminded, however, that different amacrine subpopulations might perform different functions in shaping the RGC-receptive fields, not all related to visual acuity. For instance, neuropeptide Y-expressing amacrine cells seem to contribute to low spatial frequency detection (62)
.
In conclusion, our results are the first evidence that an increased stimulation, such as that provided by EE, can affect the development of retinal visual responses accelerating the maturation of its functional properties by means of factors precociously activated in the retina and that the effects of EE require retinal BDNF action.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS |
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Received for publication April 14, 2006. Accepted for publication August 22, 2006.
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