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* Departments of Oncology,
Hubert H. Humphrey Center for Experimental Medicine and Cancer Research, Hebrew University-Hadassah Medical School, Jerusalem; and
Department of Biology, Technion, Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel
1Correspondence: Department of Oncology, Hadassah-University Hospital, POB 12000, Jerusalem 91120, Israel. E-mail: barshav{at}md.huji.ac.il
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ABSTRACT |
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 TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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Key Words: thrombin receptor • vascular endothelial growth factor • invasion • metastasis
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INTRODUCTION |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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, 2)
. Angiogenesis has been designated a hallmark of cancer and determined to be a prerequisite for tumor growth (3
, 4)
as well as for various ischemic diseases such as retinopathy of prematurity (3)
. This process takes place as a consequence of an angiogenic genetic switch, which allows the recruitment of blood vessels from neighboring tissues (5)
. The critical determinants of this angiogenic switch remain to be elucidated.
The relationship between thrombosis and cancer/metastasis was first recognized by the classical observations of Trousseau in 1872 (6)
. Many studies since have described a systemic activation of the blood coagulation cascade in patients with cancer (7
8
9)
. During initiation of the thrombosis/hemostasis cascade, a complex of factors Va and Xa (Va/Xa) acts to convert prothrombin to the serine protease thrombin. Thrombin ligates the protease activated receptor (PAR) family to initiate cellular functions. We have shown previously that PAR1, the first identified member of the PAR family, plays a direct role in both normal (physiological placental implantation) and pathological (malignancy) cell invasion processes (10)
. Molecular mechanisms underlying PAR1 involvement in tumor invasion and metastasis include increased phosphorylation of focal adhesion complex proteins, cytoskeletal reorganization, and the recruitment of 
vß5 integrin after PAR1 ligation (11)
.
PARs are G-coupled cell surface proteins mediating intracellular responses to the serine protease thrombin (12
, 13)
. PAR1 was recently recognized as an oncogene, promoting transformation in NIH 3T3 cells. In addition to its potent focus forming activity, constitutive overexpression of PAR1 in NIH 3T3 cells promoted the loss of anchorage- and serum-dependent growth. PAR1 activity was found to be directly linked to Rho A and inhibited by pertussis toxin and thus mediated via the G13 subunit (14)
. The oncogenic function of PAR1 is especially significant in light of our observation that PAR1 is overexpressed in a series of biopsy specimens of breast tumors (10)
as well as in a collection of cell lines exhibiting differential metastatic potentials (11)
.
Mouse embryos lacking Par1 or several coagulation factors die with varying frequencies at midgestation, often with signs of bleeding (15
16
17
18
19
20
21)
. Recently (22)
, it has been shown that Par1 plays a critical role in endothelial cell embryonic development, rescuing Par 1 -/- mice from bleeding to death; however, its function in tumor angiogenesis is unknown. It was unclear whether bleeding in embryos lacking Par1 results from impairment of hemostasis or of blood vessel formation. Griffin et al. (22)
provided elegant evidence demonstrating that loss of Par1 does not prevent vessel formation but rather impairs the stabilization and maturation of the newly forming vessels, thereby causing abnormal fragility and ruptures in the vessel wall (22
, 23)
. By initiating the PAR1 signaling cascade in endothelial cells, Griffin et al. (22)
were able to rescue Par1 deficient mouse embryos from bleeding to death. These results demonstrate that activation of PAR1 and its signaling pathway in endothelial cells is essential for vascular integrity. It is interesting to note the phenotypic similarities between Par1-/- embryos and various coagulation factor knockout embryos (e.g., factor V-/-, tissue factor -/-, and prothrombin -/-). Most die at midgestation with yolk sac defects and bleeding (16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24)
.
The major angiogenic factor vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) acts mainly through two tyrosine kinase receptors present almost exclusively on endothelial cells, VEGF receptor-1 (VEGFR-1; also termed flt-1) and VEGF receptor-2 (KDR/flk-1) (25
, 26)
, and via neuropilins expressed on tumor cells (27)
. The importance of the VEGF/VEGFR system in angiogenesis is strongly supported by data showing early embryonic lethality in mice either heterozygous or completely deficient in VEGFR (25
, 27
28
29
30
31)
. The crucial biological role of VEGF in angiogenic-related functions was shown in studies using targeted gene disruption in mice. Because VEGFR-2 is required for the differentiation of endothelial cells and the recruitment of endothelial cell precursors (31)
, embryos lacking the VEGFR-2 gene die before birth because the blood vessels do not form (32)
. Likewise, inhibition of VEGF activity using neutralizing antibodies or by the introduction of dominant negative VEGF receptors into endothelial cells derived from tumor-associated blood vessels resulted in the inhibition of tumor growth and even in tumor regression. This indicates that VEGF is a major initiator of tumor angiogenesis (32
, 33)
. Furthermore, VEGF expression is potentiated by hypoxia and the induced VEGF production in hypoxic areas of solid tumors contributes significantly to tumor angiogenesis (34
35
36)
. VEGF also functions as a survival factor for immature blood vessels. These vessels become VEGF independent once they recruit periendothelial cells and undergo maturation. However, the newly formed vascular network will regress if VEGF is prematurely withdrawn. Thus, VEGF deprivation may lead not only to inhibition of further angiogenesis but also to regression of already formed, immature tumor vessels (37)
.
Several VEGF isoforms are produced from the VEGF gene by alternative splicing. Five human VEGF mRNA splice forms have been identified, encoding VEGFs of various lengths (121, 145, 165, 189, and 206 amino acids; VEGF 121–206) (29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
, 38
, 39)
. They are mainly distinguished by their heparin and heparan sulfate binding ability. Whereas VEGF121 lacks the amino acids encoded by exons 6 and 7 of the VEGF gene (40)
and does not bind heparin or extracellular matrix (41)
, VEGF165 includes exon 7 and does bind heparin (40
, 41)
and VEGF145 includes exon 6 and binds tightly to the extracellular matrix (ECM) (42)
. VEGF189 and VEGF206 contain the amino acids encoded by both exons 6 and 7 and display a higher affinity for heparin and heparan sulfate than VEGF145 or VEGF165. It is not clear which of these splice forms are involved in the known effects of VEGF on angiogenesis and tumor growth. In addition, it is not known whether the effects of VEGF and PAR1 on tumor progression are interrelated in any way. We investigated this question and explored the role of PAR1 in tumor angiogenesis.
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MATERIALS AND METHODS |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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. MCF-7 (adenocarcinoma) and MDA435 cells (ductal carcinoma) were maintained as described previously (10)
. NIH 3T3 cells transfected with Vav, Src, and Ras were grown in DMEM supplemented with 10% calf serum.
Cell transfection
Cells were grown to 30–40% confluency and then transfected with 0.5–2 µg/mL of plasmid DNA in Fugene 6 transfection reagent (Boehringer Mannheim, Germany) according to the manufacturer’s instructions (11)
. After 10 days of selection, stable, transfected clones were established in medium containing 400 µg/mL G418. Antibiotic resistant cell colonies were transferred to separate culture dishes and were grown in 200 µg/mL G418 medium. Forty-eight hours after transfection, transiently transfected cells were collected and tested (RNA was extracted either for RT-PCR and/or Northern blot or for preparation of conditioned medium).
Densitometric evaluations
The relative intensities of PAR1 protein bands (obtained by Western blot analysis) were determined by Fluor-STM Multi Imager and Multi-Analyst/PC software (Bio-Rad laboratories, Herecules, CA) normalized to the total amount of protein loaded and expressed relative to PAR1 levels in parental SB-2 cells.
Preparation of conditioned medium
Cells at 90% confluence were fed with fresh medium and incubated for 24 h. For thrombin receptor-activating peptide (TRAP) activation, 100 µM TRAP was added to the medium 8 or 24 h before medium collection. Conditioned medium was then collected and centrifuged at 1000 rpm for 5 min. The supernatant was either used immediately or stored at 4°C before use.
TRAP
TRAP was comprised of H-Ser-Phe-Leu-Leu-Arg-Asn-Pro-Asn-Asp-Lys-NH2 (SFLLRNPNDK).
ELISA
Quantification of the levels of VEGF secreted by hPar1-expressing clones was carried out using an ELISA (Quantikine/human VEGF; R&D Systems, MN) performed according to the manufacturer’s instructions.
RNA extraction and RT-PCR
Total RNA was prepared, using the TRI REAGENT (Molecular Research Center, Inc., Cincinnati, OH) as described by the manufacturer. One microgram of RNA was used for complementary DNA (cDNA) synthesis, employing M-MLV reverse transcriptase and oligo dT (both from Promega, Heidelberg, Germany). VEGF transcripts were amplified, using Taq polymerase (Bioline, London, UK) for 20 µL total PCR reaction; 95°C for 3 min for initial melting was followed by 24–30 cycles of 95°C for 1 min, 59°C for 30 s, and 72°C for 1 min; 7 min at 72°C was used for final extension after cycling. PCR primers were as follows: upstream mouse L19, 5'-CTGAAGGTGAAGGGGAATGTG-3'; downstream mouse L19, 5'-GGATAAAGTCTTGATGATCTC-3' (24cycles); upstream human GADPH, 5'-CCACCCATGGCAAATTCCATGGCA-3'; downstream human GADPH, 5'-TCTAGACGGCAGGTCAGGTCCACC (26cycles); upstream VEGF, 5'-TCGGGCCTCCGAAACCATGA-3'; downstream VEGF, 5'-CCTCCTGAGAGATCTGGTTC-3' (30 cycles). For VEGF, sequences in the 3' and 5' translated regions were used, allowing the amplification of the known splice variants (516 bp, 648 bp, 720 bp, and 771 bp) (43)
. PCR products were separated on a 2% Nusieve (FMC; Rockland, ME) 3:1 agarose gel, stained with ethidium bromide, and visualized under ultraviolet light.
Northern blot analysis
Total RNA (20 µg) was electrophoresed on 1% formaldehyde-agarose gels and transferred to Hybond-N+ membranes (Amersham Pharmacia Biotech UN Limited). The membranes were hybridized (42°C, 18 h) with -32P-dCTP labeled (Rediprimer II, Amersham Biosciences UK Limited) probe for human VEGF165 (690 bp obtained by RT-PCR). After hybridization, membranes were washed and exposed to X-ray films. We used the housekeeping genes ß-actin and L32 as a control for RNA loading.
Three-dimensional tube forming assay
Type I collagen was prepared from the tail tendons of adult Sprague-Dawley rats. The collagen matrix gel was obtained by simultaneously raising the pH and ionic strength of the collagen solution. Briefly, collagen was used to coat 24-well cluster plates (0.3 mL/well). After polymerization of the collagen at 37°C for 0.5 h, the bovine aortic endothelial cells (BAEC) (2x104cells/0.5 mL-1/well-1) were added to each well. Collagen solution (0.4 mL) was carefully poured on top of the cells. After the gel was formed, 0.4 mL of conditioned medium from Par1 transfected MCF-7 cells, mock transfected MCF-7, or control nontransfected MCF-7 cells were added and replaced with fresh medium every other day. Tube formation and alignment of BAEC were visualized by phase microscopy and photographed at days 8–10 (44)
.
BAEC proliferation
Cells were seeded in DMEM containing 10% FCS at a density of 2 x 103 cells/16 mm well of a 24-well plate in triplicate. The medium was replaced with conditioned medium 24 h after seeding, and the cells were cultured for 3–14 days in the different conditioned media. Every 3 days postseeding, cells (3 wells for each condition) were dissociated with trypsin/EDTA and counted with a Coulter counter (Coulter Electronics, Ltd.).
Matrigel plug assay
The Matrigel plug assay was performed as described previously (45)
. Briefly, 300 µL Matrigel [kindly provided by Dr. H. Kleinman, National Institute of Dental Research (NIDR), National Insititutes of Health (NIH), Bethesda, MD] containing 106 Par1-transfected SB-2 cells/mL at 4°C were injected subcutaneously into an abdominal site between the hind limbs of 7-wk-old male BALB/c mice (n=6). Injections were performed bilaterally, when always at the right side Matrigel mixed with naïve cells and transfection reagent. Control mice were injected with Matrigel mixed with empty vector transfected SB-2 cells lacking Par1. Matrigel plugs were removed after 10 days. The skin of the mouse was easily pulled back to expose the Matrigel plug, which remained intact. After qualitative differences were noted and photographed, the plugs were dissected out of the mouse and fixed with 4% formaldehyde/phosphate-buffered saline and embedded in paraffin for histological evaluation. For vessel density analysis, 5 µm thick sections from paraffin-embedded plugs were stained with hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) and either Mallory’s or von Willebrand Factor (vWF) (DAKO, Glostrup, Denmark) staining. Vascular structures were recognized as luminal or slit-like structures that occasionally contained blood cells within them, as described previously (46)
. The microvessel density was determined in various plug areas. Individual vessels were counted on x200 microscopic fields (0.785 mm (2)
. A total of six fields/plug (representative of at least 3 independent Matrigel plugs per condition) was analyzed.
"Tet-On" system
A 1.3 Kb DNA of hPar1 was cut from PSL-301-PAR1 plasmid by BamHI and XhoI restriction enzymes. This fragment was cloned into the multiple cloning site of pAHygTet1 plasmid between BamHI and XhoI to generate pAHygTet1-hPar1.
Cells from a clone of AT2.1/Tet-On (generously provided by Dr. Hua-Quan Miao, Imclone Systems, Inc., New York, NY) were transfected with 2 µg DNA of either pAHygTet1-hPar1 or pAHygTet1 using FuGENE 6 transfection reagent (Roche, Mannheim Germany). After 48 h, the medium was changed and cells were selected by 800 µg/mL hygromycine B (Calbiochem, La Jolla, CA). Stable pAHygTet1-hPar1-transfected clones were checked for hPar1 expression by Northern blot analysis after a 48 h induction with doxycycline (Dox) (2 µg/mL).
Tumor growth in vivo
Two-month-old male Copenhagen rats were anesthetized. Cells (0.3x106/0.3 mL/rat) were injected subcutaneously at a dorsal site between the hind limbs. The rats (n=5, each group) were fed with drinking water containing 1% sucrose. To induce hPar1 expression, 10 µg/mL Dox was added to the drinking water, which was changed every 2 days.
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RESULTS |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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. The molecular mechanisms underlying PAR1-induced tumor invasion include recruitment of vß5 integrin, focal adhesion complex formation, and cytoskeletal reorganization. We asked whether PAR1 is also capable of inducing tumor angiogenesis. To address this question, we applied a Matrigel plug assay to evaluate whether Par1 can recruit blood vessels in vivo. We have characterized a stable Par1 transfected, nonmetastatic SB-2 melanoma cell line (Cl13) (11)
. Densitometric analysis of a representative Western blot (Fig. 1
, ref 11
) revealed that Cl13 cells express 4.2-fold more PAR1 than the parent SB-2 line, which expresses very little PAR1. For comparison, the highly invasive melanoma cell line SM-A375 was determined to express 1.8-fold the levels of PAR1 protein found in SB-2 parental cells. C113 cells were mixed at 4°C with Matrigel [reconstituted basement membrane (BM) preparation extracted from EHS mouse sarcoma] and injected subcutaneously into BALB/c mice. On injection, the liquid Matrigel rapidly formed a solid gel plug that served not only as an inert vehicle for PAR1 producing cells but also mimicked the natural interactions that exist between tumor cells and the surrounding extracellular matrix (ECM). Nontransfected SB-2 cells were similarly mixed with Matrigel and injected as a control. In some cases, C113 cells were treated with TRAP to activate Par1 before embedding in Matrigel. At 10 days after injection, the Matrigel plugs were exposed, examined, and photographed. Plugs containing control SB-2 cells were pale, containing few blood vessels; however, those containing Par1-expressing C113 cells were reddish, indicative of recruited blood vessels. Plugs containing TRAP-activated C113 cells had the most pronounced red coloration (Fig. 1I
). Matrigel plugs were subsequently removed, paraffin-embedded, sectioned, and stained for either collagen (Mallory’s staining; Fig. 1IIA, C, D, E
) or Factor VIII (vWF staining Fig. 1IIB and F
) to allow histological evaluation of blood vessels in the plug. A network of recruited capillary blood vessels is seen in plugs containing C113 cells, whereas few vessels appear in plugs containing nontransfected cells (Fig. 1II
). The difference in angiogenesis induced by activated PAR1-transfected cells (Fig. 1IIE, F
) as compared to nontransfected, either untreated or TRAP-treated cells (Fig. 1IIA-C
), is particularly striking. Microscopic counts of the microvessels in Matrigel sections indicated that these differences are statistically significant (Fig. 1III
). Whereas low levels of blood vessels were obtained in SB-2 cells and somewhat induced levels after activation, an eightfold increase was seen in Cl13 after TRAP activation (Fig. 1III
). To exclude the possibility that clonal variation is responsible for these effects, we analyzed several other PAR1-transfected SB-2 clones (MixL and Cl15) and found similar angiogenic activity (data not shown).
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Inducible Par1 expression in rat prostatic carcinoma increases tumor mass and angiogenesis
Differential expression of Par1 in the Dunning rat prostate carcinoma cell variants was observed by RT-PCR. The AT2.1 variant expressed low levels of Par1, while AT3.1, which is more motile and tumorigenic than AT2.1 (47)
, expressed high levels (Fig. 2I
B). To establish the exclusive effect of Par1 expression on prostate tumor progression, AT2.1 cells were transfected with human Par1 cDNA under the control of a tetracycline-inducible promoter (Fig. 2II
). Two clones (AT2.1/Tet-On/hPar1 clones Cl1 and Cl4) were isolated, in which hPar1 expression was strongly induced by the tetracycline analog Dox as determined by Northern blot analysis. Par1 expression was nearly undetectable in the absence of Dox. After addition of Dox, the levels of the 4.1 kb Par1 mRNA were increased substantially (39-fold for Cl1 and 52-fold for Cl4; Fig. 2IID, F
). The optimal dose of Dox necessary to induce Par1 expression was 1–2 µg/mL (not shown). Par1 mRNA could be detected as early as 4–6 h and reached maximum levels at 20–24 h after Dox treatment (not shown). AT2.1 cells transfected with the pTet-On vector without the Par1 gene did not express any detectable Par1 mRNA levels either in the presence (Fig. 2II
, lane B) or in the absence (Fig. 2II
, lane A) of Dox.
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To assess the effect of PAR1 on tumor growth in vivo, AT2.1/Tet-On/hPar1 clone Cl4 cells or control transfected cells were injected subcuanteously into rats. Rats were then maintained for 2 wk with either regular drinking water (supplemented with 1% sucrose) or drinking water containing Dox (and 1% sucrose) to induce Par1. In all injected rats, marked tumor growth occurred during this time period. In the absence of Dox, the mean mass of AT2.1 clone Cl4 tumors was 0.35 ± 0.1 g (Fig. 2IIIB
). When hPar1 expression was induced by Dox in the drinking water, mean AT2.1 clone Cl4 tumor mass increased 3.7-fold to 1.30 ± 0.14 g. This increase was statistically significant. In addition to being larger, tumors in these Dox-treated animals had a very reddish appearance (Fig. 2IIIC
) compared to the pale appearance of tumors from untreated animals (Fig. 2IIIB
). In comparison, tumors from control-transfected and nontransfected AT2.1 tumors were significantly smaller and did not increase in mass or change in color when Dox was delivered in their drinking water (Fig. 2IV
). We conclude therefore that the regulated induction of the Par1 gene markedly enhanced two critical determinants of tumor progression: tumor size and angiogenesis.
Par1-expressing cells induce functional VEGF
Next, we analyzed the expression levels of VEGF165 in the stably Par1-transfected melanoma cells (Cl13 and Mix L) using Northern blot analysis (Fig. 3I
). Parental SB-2 or control transfected cells (Fig. 3IA and B
, respectively) showed no detectable levels of VEGF, but both Cl13 and MixL had significant levels of VEGF165 mRNA (Fig. 3IC and D
, respectively). A probe for the house-keeping gene ß-actin was used as a control for loading. Activation of PAR1 by thrombin or TRAP further increased levels of VEGF165 mRNA (Fig. 3II
). Maximal induction was obtained after 8 h of TRAP treatment (Fig. 3II
, lane G) at concentrations of 100 µM and 50 µM and was reduced markedly with lower concentrations (Fig. 3III
, lanes B–F). When control SB-2 cells were treated with 100 µM of TRAP for 8 h there was no detectable change in VEGF mRNA levels compared to untreated SB-2 cells (data not shown). A similar pattern was obtained for VEGF145 but not for VEGF189, which was slightly expressed only after 8 h of TRAP treatment (Fig. 3IV
). Because TRAP could be activating other endogenous PARs, it is important to point out that RT-PCR did not detect any expression of PAR2, PAR3, or PAR4 in our experimental system (data not shown). Using RT-PCR with primers targeting the start site (exon 1) and the end point (exon 8) of the VEGF gene, we could detect all the different splice forms induced by Par1. Par1 markedly induced VEGF 121, VEGF145, and VEGF165; it induced only very low levels of VEGF 189, and VEGF 206 was not detected at all. No VEGF isoforms were detected in the absence of Par1 in SB-2 parental cells, control-transfected SB-2 cells, or nonmetastatic cells (MCF-7) (Fig. 3IV
). Activation of PAR1 (TRAP; 8 h) increased substantially the level of VEGF189, similar to the pattern obtained in the highly metastatic cells (MDA435). To determine how much VEGF protein is actually produced and secreted, VEGF conditioned media were quantitated by ELISA. In conditioned medium (up to 24 h) derived from control cells (not expressing Par1), there was no significant VEGF release (<15 pg/mL). In 8 h conditioned medium derived from Cl13 cells activated with TRAP, VEGF levels were 1440 ± 39.8 pg/mL (P<0.01) as compared with 343.3 ± 39.8 pg/mL in nonactivated Cl13 cells. Twenty four hour conditioned medium from nonactivated Cl13 cells contained 1467 ± 125.8 pg/mL VEGF; on TRAP activation VEGF release was increased to 4863.1 ± 267.1 pg/mL (P<0.005).
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To determine whether the increased levels of VEGF mRNA and protein induced by Par1 gene correspond to increases in functional VEGF protein, we collected conditioned medium from untreated or thrombin-activated Par1 transfected cells, as well as from control nontransfected, nonmetastatic cells. We used an endothelial tube forming assay to assess VEGF activity: BAEC cells were embedded in a three-dimensional collagen (type I) mesh and the extent of tube-forming network was evaluated after application of the various conditioned media. Although low vascular branching activity was obtained with untreated control conditioned medium, either treated with thrombin or not (Fig. 4I
A–C), a more complex appearing network was obtained with activated PAR1 conditioned medium obtained from Par1-transfected cells (Fig. 4ID, E
). We also examined the effect of Par1 transfected cell conditioned media on the rate of BAEC proliferation in vitro. BAEC proliferation was found to be maximal using conditioned medium from Cl13 cells activated with TRAP (8 h) and was comparable to proliferation seen using conditioned medium from the highly invasive MDA 435 cell line (Fig. 4II
). When neutralizing anti-VEGF antibodies were applied during the proliferation assay, a significant inhibition was obtained. Nearly complete inhibition is seen at a 1:100 dilution of the antibodies; the effect decreases in a dose-dependent manner at greater dilutions (Fig. 4III
). These data demonstrate that activated PAR1-expressing cells secrete high levels of functional VEGF.
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VEGF induction by Par1 is mediated via protein kinase C, Src, and phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase and Src
The phorbol ester PMA increased VEGF mRNA levels in Cl13 cells in a dose-dependent manner, with maximum induction achieved between 1 and 500 ng/mL (Fig. 5I
). To determine whether protein kinase C (PKC) might play a role in PAR1-induced increases in VEGF, we used the potent PKC inhibitor calphostin C. At concentrations of 500 ng/mL and higher, calphostin C potently blocked the TRAP-induced increase in VEGF mRNA in Cl13 cells (Fig. 5II
). No effect was observed at a lower concentration (50 ng/mL). These data suggest that PKC plays a role in the induction of VEGF by PAR1. Specific inhibitors of two other kinases also inhibited the PAR1-dependent increase in VEGF expression in Cl13 cells. Wortmannin, phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) inhibitor, inhibited TRAP-induced increases in VEGF mRNA levels (Fig. 5III
). PP-2, a potent Src inhibitor, also inhibited VEGF induction (Fig. 5IV
). These data point to essential roles for PKC, Src, and PI3K in the molecular mechanisms underlying VEGF induction by PAR1.
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Transformation of NIH 3T3 cells by the oncogenes v-Ha-Ras, V-Src, or VavK49 induces VEGF mRNA
It has been shown previously that the PAR1 signaling pathway involves Src family tyrosine kinases downstream (48)
, Ras (49
, 50)
, and increased phosphorylation of Vav (51
, 52)
. It was therefore of interest to see what effect their oncogenic (activated) forms had on VEGF mRNA expression.
To determine the effect of oncogenic transformation on VEGF expression, mRNA from transformed and control NIH 3T3 cells was examined for VEGF transcripts (Fig. 6I
). NIH3T3 cells were transfected with the active forms of ras, src, or vav (K49) oncogenes, wild-type (wt) vav proto-oncogene, or two different SH2 domain mutants of vav (W622R and R647L). Ras, src, and the oncogenic vav all have potent transforming capability. Whereas the full-length vav proto-oncogene and the W622R vav mutant exhibit greatly reduced transforming potential, the R647L vav mutant retains the transforming potential of the oncogene. As shown in Fig. 6I
, a marked induction in VEGF mRNA expression was observed in the NIH 3T3 cells transfected with src or the vav oncogene. However, only low levels of VEGF mRNA are induced in cells transfected with ras or the proto-oncogene vav, and no VEGF is detected when cells are transfected with vav W622R, the SH2 mutant with reduced transforming ability (Fig. 6I
). Low levels of VEGF mRNA were present in cells transfected with vav R647L, which maintains its transforming capability (data not shown). These results suggest that cell transformation is sufficient to induce VEGF.
|
By performing RT-PCR with primers directed to exons 1 and 8 of the VEGF gene, we examined which VEGF splice forms are expressed in transformed cells. Although control NIH 3T3 cells do not express any of the VEGF splice variants, src-transfected NIH 3T3 cells express VEGF121, 145, 165, and 189 but not VEGF 206 (Fig. 6III
). The VEGF forms present in src-transformed NIH 3T3 were similar to those found in activated (8 h of TRAP) Cl13 cells.
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DISCUSSION |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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, 11)
. Here we wished to determine the involvement of PAR1 in tumor angiogenesis. Although the association between the protease thrombin and angiogenesis has been previously documented (53
54
55)
, dissection of the role of PAR1 in tumor angiogenesis and its mechanism of activation are largely unknown.
Our results provide a comprehensive analysis of PAR1 involvement in tumor angiogenesis. We demonstrate here the ability of Par1 to elicit tumor angiogenesis both in vivo in animal models and in vitro (as shown by the endothelial tube forming assay and cell proliferation). In addition, Par1 expression induces VEGF mRNA. The data indicate that whereas the expression of Par1 is sufficient to induce VEGF levels, activation of the PAR1 protein and initiation of the cell signaling machinery greatly enhance expression of four VEGF splice forms: VEGF121, VEGF145, VEGF165, and VEGF189 but not VEGF206. This correlates with an increase in effects on angiogenesis in the Matrigel plug assay and on endothelial tube formation and cell proliferation after activation of PAR1. The fact that a greater angiogenic response is seen in Matrigel plugs containing preactivated Par1-expressing cells indicates that active recruitment of blood vessels take place early on, immediately after the introduction of the Matrigel plugs. These findings, together with our previous results on the increased invasion potential of Par1-overexpressing cells, strongly support a significant role for Par1 in the two critical events in tumor progression, tumor invasion and angiogenesis (10
, 11)
.
Activation of PAR1 leads to synthesis and secretion of functional VEGF protein as indicated by our observation that conditioned medium from Par1-overexpressing cells increases BAEC proliferation and three-dimensional tube forming assay in vitro. The growth-promoting activity of activated PAR1 is mediated by VEGF as demonstrated by the dramatic inhibition of PAR1-induced endothelial cell proliferation in the presence of neutralizing anti-VEGF antibodies. Par1 expression induces four VEGF splice forms (VEGF121, VEGF145, VEGF165, VEGF189), which are markedly further induced after activation of PAR1 by thrombin or TRAP. This increase in VEGF mRNA is most likely due to stabilization of VEGF mRNA rather than enhanced transcription as documented recently by Haung et al. (55)
and our data (not shown). It appears, therefore, that Par1 plays a dual role in the control of blood vessel formation. The expression of Par1 in tumor cells is sufficient to induce VEGF expression levels, leading to endothelial cell proliferation and sprouting. In addition, Par1 is required in endothelial cells for maturation and stabilization of the blood vessels (22)
.
Previous studies have shown that thrombin activates PKC, Src, PI3K, and mitogen-activated protein kinase (56
57
58)
. Our studies show the involvement of these signaling enzymes in PAR1-induced angiogenesis, because PP2, a Src inhibitor, wortmannin, a PI3K inhibitor, and walphostin C, a PKC inhibitor, all potently inhibited VEGF165 mRNA induction. Furthermore, oncogenic transformation of NIH 3T3 cells with genes that participate in PAR1 signaling (e.g., ras, src, or vav; refs 48
, 51
, 59
, 60
) is sufficient to induce the same four VEGF splice forms seen in Par1-transfected tumor cells. PAR1 couples to different G-proteins and activates the tyrosine kinases Src and Fyn (48
, 59
, 61)
. Thrombin has been shown to induce tyrosine phosphorylation of the adaptor protein Shc, which is then recruited to Grb2 (61)
. It has been reported that a dominant negative Shc that is deficient in Grb2-binding capability suppresses thrombin-mediated activation of p44 MAP kinase and cell growth, highlighting out the importance of Shc in this pathway. In CCL-39 fibroblasts, thrombin activates p21 ras in a manner that is inhibited by pertussis toxin and the tyrosine kinase inhibitor genistein suggesting that activation of Ras involves both G-proteins and activation of protein tyrosine kinases (62)
. Although the mechanism by which PAR1 couples to Ras is still unclear, it is likely that Src and Fyn activate Ras through the adaptor protein Shc in complex with Grb2 and SOSR as an exchange factor (48
, 59)
. It has been documented previously that activated forms of Ras induce VEGF gene expression in NIH 3T3 cells and primary endothelial cells (63
, 64)
; our results confirm and support these data. Vav activates GTP-binding proteins and is part of the PAR1 signaling cascade (52
, 65)
; we now show that it also induces low levels of VEGF. The oncogenic form of vav induces high levels of VEGF. The fact that two SH2 mutants of Vav (R647L and W622R), both shown to be defective in their tyrosine phosphorylation properties (66
, 67)
, had different abilities to induce VEGF suggests a correlation between VEGF production and transforming potential. The W622R mutant, which is defective in transforming properties, does not induce VEGF expression while R647L, which maintains its transforming potential, does.
Together, these data strongly support the notion that PAR1 expression and the initiation of the PAR1 signaling cascade are highly significant in eliciting tumor angiogenesis.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS |
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Received for publication May 29, 2002.
Revision received October 20, 2002.
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REFERENCES |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMATERIALS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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vß5 integrin. J. Biol. Chem. 276,10952-10962-thrombin receptor coupled to Ca+2 mobilization. FEBS Lett. 288,123-128[CrossRef][Medline]
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  B. J. Wilson, R. Harada, L. LeDuy, M. D. Hollenberg, and A. Nepveu CUX1 Transcription Factor Is a Downstream Effector of the Proteinase-activated Receptor 2 (PAR2) J. Biol. Chem., January 2, 2009; 284(1): 36 - 45. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 H. H. Versteeg, F. Schaffner, M. Kerver, L. G. Ellies, P. Andrade-Gordon, B. M. Mueller, and W. Ruf Protease-Activated Receptor (PAR) 2, but not PAR1, Signaling Promotes the Development of Mammary Adenocarcinoma in Polyoma Middle T Mice Cancer Res., September 1, 2008; 68(17): 7219 - 7227. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 G. J. Mize, W. Wang, and T. K. Takayama Prostate-Specific Kallikreins-2 and -4 Enhance the Proliferation of DU-145 Prostate Cancer Cells through Protease-Activated Receptors-1 and -2 Mol. Cancer Res., June 1, 2008; 6(6): 1043 - 1051. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 I Jahan, J Fujimoto, S. M. Alam, E Sato, H Sakaguchi, and T Tamaya Role of protease activated receptor-2 in tumor advancement of ovarian cancers Ann. Onc., September 1, 2007; 18(9): 1506 - 1512. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 P. Arora, T. K. Ricks, and J. Trejo Protease-activated receptor signalling, endocytic sorting and dysregulation in cancer J. Cell Sci., March 15, 2007; 120(6): 921 - 928. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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Z. Salah, M. Maoz, E. Pokroy, M. Lotem, R. Bar-Shavit, and B. Uziely Protease-Activated Receptor-1 (hPar1), A Survival Factor Eliciting Tumor Progression Mol. Cancer Res., March 1, 2007; 5(3): 229 - 240. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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K. Guo, J. Li, H. Wang, M. Osato, J. P. Tang, S. Y. Quah, B. Q. Gan, and Q. Zeng PRL-3 Initiates Tumor Angiogenesis by Recruiting Endothelial Cells In vitro and In vivo Cancer Res., October 1, 2006; 66(19): 9625 - 9635. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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N. Nguyen, A. Kuliopulos, R. A. Graham, and L. Covic Tumor-Derived Cyr61(CCN1) Promotes Stromal Matrix Metalloproteinase-1 Production and Protease-Activated Receptor 1-Dependent Migration of Breast Cancer Cells. Cancer Res., March 1, 2006; 66(5): 2658 - 2665. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 D. M. Smadja, I. Bieche, G. Uzan, H. Bompais, L. Muller, C. Boisson-Vidal, M. Vidaud, M. Aiach, and P. Gaussem PAR-1 Activation on Human Late Endothelial Progenitor Cells Enhances Angiogenesis In Vitro With Upregulation of the SDF-1/CXCR4 System Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol., November 1, 2005; 25(11): 2321 - 2327. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 M. Steinhoff, J. Buddenkotte, V. Shpacovitch, A. Rattenholl, C. Moormann, N. Vergnolle, T. A. Luger, and M. D. Hollenberg Proteinase-Activated Receptors: Transducers of Proteinase-Mediated Signaling in Inflammation and Immune Response Endocr. Rev., February 1, 2005; 26(1): 1 - 43. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 L. Ma, R. Perini, W. McKnight, M. Dicay, A. Klein, M. D. Hollenberg, and J. L. Wallace Proteinase-activated receptors 1 and 4 counter-regulate endostatin and VEGF release from human platelets PNAS, January 4, 2005; 102(1): 216 - 220. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 Z. Salah, M. Maoz, I. Cohen, G. Pizov, D. Pode, M. S. Runge, and R. Bar-Shavit Identification of a novel functional androgen response element within hPar1 promoter: implications to prostate cancer progression FASEB J, January 1, 2005; 19(1): 62 - 72. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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P. Hazarika, M. F. McCarty, V. G. Prieto, S. George, D. Babu, D. Koul, M. Bar-Eli, and M. Duvic Up-regulation of Flotillin-2 Is Associated with Melanoma Progression and Modulates Expression of the Thrombin Receptor Protease Activated Receptor 1 Cancer Res., October 15, 2004; 64(20): 7361 - 7369. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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C. S. Moreno, S. Ramachandran, D. G. Ashby, N. Laycock, C. A. Plattner, W. Chen, W. C. Hahn, and D. C. Pallas Signaling and Transcriptional Changes Critical for Transformation of Human Cells by Simian Virus 40 Small Tumor Antigen or Protein Phosphatase 2A B56{gamma} Knockdown Cancer Res., October 1, 2004; 64(19): 6978 - 6988. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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X. Shi, B. Gangadharan, L. F. Brass, W. Ruf, and B. M. Mueller Protease-Activated Receptors (PAR1 and PAR2) Contribute to Tumor Cell Motility and Metastasis Mol. Cancer Res., July 1, 2004; 2(7): 395 - 402. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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T. Minami, A. Sugiyama, S.-Q. Wu, R. Abid, T. Kodama, and W. C. Aird Thrombin and Phenotypic Modulation of the Endothelium Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol., January 1, 2004; 24(1): 41 - 53. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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Y.-J. Yin, Z. Salah, S. Grisaru-Granovsky, I. Cohen, S. C. Even-Ram, M. Maoz, B. Uziely, T. Peretz, and R. Bar-Shavit Human Protease-Activated Receptor 1 Expression in Malignant Epithelia: A Role in Invasiveness Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol., June 1, 2003; 23(6): 940 - 944. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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