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A Special Series of Reviews: RNA Localization |
Departments of Biology and Anatomy and Cell Biology, McGill University, Montréal, Québec, Canada H3A 1B1
ABSTRACT
Many RNAs involved in determination of the oocyte, specification of embryonic axes, and establishment of germ cells in Drosophila are localized asymmetrically within the developing egg or syncytial embryo. Here I review the current state of knowledge about the cis-acting sequences involved in RNA targeting, RNA binding proteins; gene activities implicated in localizing specific RNAs, and the role of the tubulin and actin cytoskeletons in RNA sorting within the oocyte. Targeted RNAs are often under complex translational control, and the translational control of two RNAs that localize to the posterior of the oocyte, oskar and nanos, is also discussed. Prospects for filling gaps in our knowledge about the mechanisms of localizing RNAs and the importance of RNA sorting in regulating gene expression are also explored.—Lasko, P. RNA sorting in Drosophila oocytes and embryos.
Key Words: RNA localization • posterior pole • oogenesis • cytoskeleton • oocyte nucleus
BACKGROUND
Establishment of the germ line and the embryonic axes in Drosophila involves the asymmetric intracellular localization of RNAs and proteins. For instance, a key determinant of anterior-posterior position in the embryo is the concentration of the graded morphogen Hunchback (Hb; 1).2 The Hb gradient is formed, in turn, through the antagonistic effects of at least two maternal molecules: transcription of the hb gene is activated at the anterior pole by localized Bicoid (Bcd) protein, and translation of the hb mRNA is repressed at the posterior pole by localized Nos protein in association with the translational repressor protein Pumilio 2-5) . Accumulation of Bcd and Nos to the anterior and posterior poles, respectively, occurs after localization of their two mRNAs during the later stages of oogenesis and, in the case of Nos, by local translational control 2, 6-9) . Therefore, females homozygous for bcd or nos mutations produce embryos that lack anterior or posterior body elements, as they cannot deposit functional copies of these essential RNAs into their eggs during oogenesis. Localization of nos RNA depends on the prior posterior localization of functional oskar (osk) RNA, Vas protein, and Tudor (Tud) protein in the pole plasm and on the functions of numerous other genes (6) . A posterior-to-anterior gradient of Caudal (Cad), another important regulator of anterior-posterior patterning, comes about through translational repression of uniformly distributed cad mRNA by Bcd 10, 11) .
In addition to anterior-posterior patterning, localized RNAs underlie many other symmetry-breaking events in oogenesis and initial embryonic development. The first stages of oogenesis in Drosophila involve the asymmetric division of a stem cell into a daughter stem cell and a committed cell, the cystoblast. The cystoblast then undergoes four mitotic divisions to give rise to 16 cells, interconnected such that two of the 16 cells are each joined to four other cells via cytoplasmic bridges called ring canals; one of these four-ring-canal cells is determined as the oocyte. An early marker for the oocyte is accumulation of Bicaudal-D (Bic-D) RNA (12) ; mutations that abrogate localization of Bic-D RNA into a single cell, including Bic-D mutations themselves, block oocyte differentiation 12-14) . In addition to Bic-D, the early oocyte accumulates numerous other specific RNAs, including some that have important functions in axis establishment. These events occur within a structure called the germarium. Subsequent steps of oogenesis have been divided into 14 stages (15) : previtellogenic oogenesis comprises stages 1–7, and the vitellogenic stages are numbered 8–14.
Axis specification in the egg chamber depends on successive signaling
interactions between the oocyte and the most posterior follicle cells.
To establish the anterior-posterior axis, the oocyte signals to the
neighboring posterior follicle cells to repress anterior fate. Second,
these follicle cells signal back to the adjacent (posterior) region of
the oocyte to polarize its microtubule cytoskeleton. The earlier of
these two signaling interactions involves Gurken (Grk) protein
16-19)
. Along with the oocyte nucleus, grk
mRNA is localized at the posterior of the oocyte in early oogenesis; it
is translated to make the TGF-
-like Grk protein, which activates the
EGF receptor on the adjacent follicle cell membranes. In grk
mutant ovaries, anterior follicle cell types such as border cells and
the centripetal follicle cells that produce the micropyle (a
specialized eggshell structure) are duplicated at the posterior.
Furthermore, within grk mutant oocytes, normally anteriorly
localized molecules such as bicoid (bcd) RNA
localize to both poles, whereas normally posteriorly localized
molecules such as osk RNA accumulate in the center. As early
as stage 7 of oogenesis, the oocyte nucleus and grk RNA both
become localized to the anterodorsal corner of the oocyte (20; C.
Paré and B. Suter, personal communication). Again, grk
is locally translated and then locally activates the EGF receptor,
which is uniformly expressed in the follicle cells. Those follicle
cells that receive the Grk signal are specified as dorsal anterior.
Assembly of the specialized ooplasm, or pole plasm, that induces germ cell formation in Drosophila also relies heavily on localization or specific RNAs. Posterior localization of osk RNA and its translation into Osk protein are the first steps in a cascade of molecular localizations that result in the assembly of polar granules and, ultimately, in establishment of the germ line 21-23) . Mislocalization of high concentrations of osk RNA to the anterior pole induces functional pole plasm at the anterior, suggesting that no essential localized factors operate upstream of osk (23) . The activities of vasa (vas; 24) and tudor (tud; 25) are both required downstream of osk for ectopic pole cell formation; Osk, Vas, and Tud proteins are all components of polar granules 26-29) . Polar granule assembly is completed in late oogenesis and immediately after egg activation with the localization of numerous other RNAs and proteins to the posterior cytoplasm. These include mitochondrial large ribosomal RNA (mtlrRNA), which is transported from mitochondria into polar granules after egg activation (30) , germ cell-less (31) , and the maternally expressed noncoding Pgc RNA (32) .
MECHANISMS OF RNA LOCALIZATION
Figure 1 presents, in schematic form, four major RNA localization pathways that occur during Drosophila oogenesis and the gene activities required for each. For most localized RNAs from Drosophila, regions of the 3' UTR have been shown to be essential for targeting (33) . Detailed functional analyses of the 3' UTR regions have been carried out for only a few localized RNAs, most notably for osk, bcd, and nos. Even for these RNAs, all the cis-acting elements necessary for various steps of RNA localization have not been precisely mapped; mapping is also confounded, particularly in the case of nos, by functional redundancy among multiple elements. Figure 2 summarizes the available information regarding localization signals, but should not be considered a complete and final map.
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bcd, an anteriorly localized RNA
bcd RNA is localized to the anterior pole of the oocyte
in at least four separable steps (34)
. First, in stages
4–6 of oogenesis, the RNA accumulates in a ring in the posterior
cytoplasm of the oocyte. The ring shifts to the anterior of the oocyte
during stages 7 and 8 via two redundant RNA–protein interaction
events, termed events A and B (35)
. In the next stages of
oogenesis, a large quantity of bcd RNA is synthesized in the
nurse cells, within which it concentrates with variable intensity in
patches adjacent on the apical side to the nurse cell nuclei 34, 36)
. bcd RNA is then transferred from the nurse cells
to the oocyte along with the nurse cell cytoplasm, and in late stage 10
it is abundant throughout about the anterior-most 20–25% of the
oocyte. Finally, in late oogenesis there is a redistribution of
bcd RNA from across the entire anterior of the oocyte to a
spherical distribution centered on the dorsal-anterior.
No trans-acting mutation has been identified that specifically blocks the early accumulation of bcd RNA in the oocyte. Mutations that abrogate oocyte determination or alter microtubule organization block accumulation of all oocyte-localized RNAs, including bcd. In exuperantia (exu) mutants, anterior concentration of bcd RNA is not maintained beyond stage 9 and apical nurse cell localization is not observed (34) . sww mutations affect bcd RNA localization at a later stage; the distribution of bcd RNA in nurse cells and the oocyte is normal through early stage 10, but beginning in late stage 10, anterior concentration of bcd RNA is not maintained and the large quantities of bcd RNA that are transferred from the nurse cells at this time are distributed throughout the oocyte. Finally, staufen (stau) mutations affect only the final stage of bcd localization; the RNA becomes delocalized after stage 12 of oogenesis.
Recent work has been directed at understanding the molecular mechanisms underlying bcd RNA localization, focusing on mapping relevant cis-acting elements and on finding specific bcd RNA binding proteins. An exhaustive deletion analysis of the bcd 3' UTR identified a 53 nucleotide region, called BLE1, located from nt 453-505 of the 817 nt bcd 3' UTR 37, 38) . BLE1 is sufficient to direct accumulation of RNA into the oocyte and to its anterior cortex (event A), but is unable to maintain anterior localization beyond stage 9 (38) . These are the same aspects of bcd RNA localization that are dependent on exu function. An RNA binding protein specific for the BLE1, Exl, has been identified, suggesting an interaction between Exl, Exu, and BLE1 (36) .
The BLE1 sequence includes the distal stem and loop portion of stem-loop V. Various single nucleotide changes affecting stem V formation, falling within nt 451-457, nt 469-475, and nt 481-484, block oocyte localization of bcd RNA 35, 39) . Although this mutational analysis defines one necessary region for oocyte localization, stem loop V is not itself sufficient to target RNAs to the oocyte. Rather, stem loops IV and V, or two copies of stem loop V, are essential for event A to occur. These results are most easily explained if reiterated sites for the same binding proteins or sequential sites for different binding factors are involved in mediating the localization event.
Another key mediator of bcd RNA localization is Stau protein, which has been shown to associate with three stem-loop structures in the bcd 3' UTR (40) . stau function is necessary for the final stages of bcd RNA localization to take place (41) . Linker-scanning mutation analysis limited the sites essential for in vivo association of Stau with bcd RNA to nt 211-360, nt 421-510, and nt 541-630 of the bcd 3' UTR 40, 41) , all of which are within predicted stem-loop structures (stem loops III, V, and IV, respectively). Among these mutations are two that would abolish the distal part of stem V (changing nt 455-459 and 471-475). Endogenous Stau is recruited specifically onto injected bcd 3' UTR RNA in embryos; after 30 min, Stau is found in particles of up to 1 µm in diameter, which also contain bcd 3' UTR RNA. These particles are found associated with microtubules, and disruption of microtubules with Colcemid disrupts their distribution. Recent analysis of the structure of the Stau-bcd particles indicates that mutations that interfere with formation of the three critical stem loops reduce Stau binding to bcd RNA. Furthermore, intermolecular base-pairing between single-stranded loops on different bcd RNA molecules is important for Stau/bcd-containing particle formation (42) . The fact that the same residues in stem V are implicated both in Stau-independent event A and Stau-dependent particle assembly suggests that the later process may involve dissociation of an earlier-acting factor, such as Exl, from stem loop V (39) .
osk, a posteriorly localizing RNA
osk RNA accumulates in the oocyte as early as region 2B
of the germarium 21, 22)
. As is the case for
bcd, no mutations are known that specifically block
osk localization at this step. osk RNA is
abundant throughout the cytoplasm of previtellogenic oocytes, but in
lightly stained immunohistochemical reactions appears to be at higher
concentration at the posterior pole. During stages 7 and 8,
osk distribution changes such that it is transiently most
abundant at the anterior pole. From there, osk RNA migrates
toward the posterior, in close association with the oocyte cortex, so
that from stage 9 through the remainder of oogenesis and in early
embryogenesis, osk RNA appears strictly localized at the
posterior pole.
Mutations in several genes, including cappuccino (capu), spire (spir), chickadee (chic), stau, Bic-D, and Tropomyosin-1 (Tm1), have been identified that block posterior localization of osk RNA. Mutations in capu and spir lead to premature cytoplasmic streaming in the developing oocyte and a failure to accumulate RNAs and proteins to the posterior pole 43, 44) . capu encodes a protein of the formin family; in yeast, a formin protein has been shown to interact with profilin (the product of chic; 45) and F-actin (46) . Mutations affecting the cytoskeletal actin binding protein tropomyosin also abrogate osk localization 47, 48) . stau function is also required for osk localization. As Stau is an RNA binding protein that has been directly implicated in bcd localization, it seems likely to have an important and direct role in localizing osk as well. However, details of any association between Stau and osk are not understood. The role of Bic-D in osk localization was investigated in transgenic lines carrying that gene under the control of an inducible promoter. A limited period of Bic-D expression was sufficient to allow some oocytes to proceed through vitellogenic development; in these Bic-Dmom oocytes, osk RNA fails to be localized to the posterior pole (49) . Mutations in mago nashi (mago) also block posterior localization of osk. In mago oocytes, osk remains at the anterior pole until late stage 10, when it relocalizes along the oocyte cortex (50) . The cloning of spir has not been reported.
Analysis of deletion mutants have mapped the necessary localization elements for osk RNA to the 3' UTR (51) . As is the case for bcd, different elements are responsible for different stages of osk localization; the various elements are more separable for osk than for bcd. Within the 1043 nt 3' UTR, the region between nt 532-791 is required for accumulation of osk into the early oocyte. Two smaller regions, nt 242-363 and nt 791-846, define cis-regulatory elements required for the release of osk RNA from the anterior pole. Finally, nt 1-242 are essential for posterior localization of osk RNA. One deletion (olc15) blocks oocyte accumulation but not posterior localization, suggesting that the earlier stage is not a necessary predecessor to the latter (51) .
Posterior localization of osk RNA is intimately coupled with its translational control. Two different isoforms of Osk protein (Long Osk and Short Osk) are produced from osk mRNA by alternative translation initiation. Only Short Osk is incorporated into the pole cells, and a transgene expressing only Short Osk can fully rescue osk function (52) . Mutations that block osk RNA localization also block its translation 52, 53) ; conversely, osk RNA localization is not maintained beyond stage 10 in osk nonsense mutant alleles encoding prematurely truncated unstable proteins 21, 52) . Therefore, Osk protein is required for maintenance of osk RNA localization. Whether Osk binds osk RNA is unknown. Translational repression of osk is mediated, at least in part, through an interaction between the RNA binding protein Bruno (Bru) and a cis-regulatory element, the Bru response element (BRE), in the 3' UTR of osk RNA 54, 55) . There are six copies of the BRE in the osk 3' UTR (nt 143-151, 175-183, 207-215, 217-225, 927-935, 938-946), enabling the derivation of a 9 nt consensus sequence, UU(G/A)U(A/G)U(G/A) UU (54) . Introduction of an osk transgene lacking BREs (oskBRE-) into females results in production of embryos with anterior deletions or bicaudal embryos, particularly when endogenous osk activity is removed by osk mutation or by a mutation in a gene required for osk RNA localization (capu, spir, mago). Though Bruno is a key translational repressor of osk RNA, it is unlikely to be the only one. For example, precocious translation of osk, similar to that found from oskBRE-, is observed in homozygous Bicaudal-C (Bic-C) oocytes (56) , suggesting that Bic-C might also act in translational repression of osk. Bic-C, like Bru, is an RNA binding protein 56, 57) , but there is no evidence to date of an interaction between the two nor of a direct interaction between Bic-C and osk RNA. Even from an oskBRE- transgene or in a Bic-C background, Osk protein is detectable only by immunostaining from about stage 7 of oogenesis even though osk RNA is abundant in the oocyte from germarial stages, suggesting an additional mechanism for repressing osk translation in early stages of oogenesis. Presently there are no candidates for trans-acting factors that repress osk translation in early previtellogenic oocytes.
Once osk RNA is localized to the pole plasm, translational repression must be alleviated and translation activated. Several gene products are involved in this process. One of these is stau, as the oskBRE- transgene is not detectably translated in stau mutants. This indicates a role for Stau in translational activation of osk independent of its role in osk localization (54) . This requirement cannot be absolute, however, as stau becomes partially dispensable for osk activity when extra copies of the osk gene are present (58) and endogenous osk is translated in a stau mutant background when a transgene that constitutively expresses Short Osk is also present (59) . vas, which encodes an RNA helicase (60) , has also been implicated in activating Short Osk translation, perhaps in concert with Osk itself (59) . vas activity is also required for phosphorylation of Short Osk 59, 61) . Mutations at the aubergine (aub) locus reduce Osk protein levels, but not levels of osk RNA; osk RNA is less stably concentrated at the posterior pole, presumably because of the reduced Osk levels 53, 62) . Thus aub, which has not been cloned, may encode a translational activator of osk.
Despite sequence similarity between Bru and EDEN-BP, a protein implicated in deadenylation of maternal mRNAs in Xenopus oocytes (63) , regulation of osk translation does not appear to involve alterations to the length of the poly(A) tail (55) . Cis-acting elements required for derepression of osk translation have been mapped to its 5' UTR. A 249 nt deletion that removes the Long Osk initiation site and most of the sequence 5' to the Short Osk start site, but not the Short Osk start site itself, renders osk translationally silent and incapable of rescuing osk mutations (61) . Similarly, a 414 nt fragment of the 5' end of osk RNA containing the above sequences can drive translation of a localized reporter RNA. This suggested that essential cis-acting elements for enabling Osk translation reside within the region defined by the deletion. The effects of this regulatory element require the presence of a functional BRE in the 3' UTR; if the BRE is mutated and rendered less able to repress translation, the 249 nt deletion no longer blocks translation and the 414 nt fragment can no longer substantially enhance it. Thus the 5' UTR functions as a derepressor of translation rather than as a simple translational activator. UV light cross-linking experiments revealed two proteins, of 50 kDa and of 68 kDa, that interact with this critical region. The identities of these proteins remain unknown, and they do not correspond with the products of the known genes described above that have been implicated in regulating osk translation. The 50 kDa protein also interacts with the 3' UTR segment containing four BREs (nt 118-242) and can bind the segment simultaneously with Bruno, probably at adjacent sites (61) . This is consistent with a direct role for the 50 kDa protein in mediating interaction between the 5' and 3' UTRs of osk RNA; such interactions have been implicated as essential for translation initiation in yeast (64) .
nos, a late-localizing posterior RNA
Like osk, nos RNA accumulates in the
previtellogenic oocyte, although it is not present at detectable
concentrations until stages 2 and 3 (65)
. Again like
osk, nos transiently accumulates at the anterior
pole of the oocyte during stages 7 and 8. After stage 8, however, the
patterns of these two RNAs diverge. nos RNA is not
detectable within the oocyte from stages 9–11, but is transcribed
abundantly in the nurse cells during that time. During the period of
bulk cytoplasmic transport, nos RNA is transferred into the
oocyte, and it accumulates at the posterior pole at the end of
oogenesis (stages 12–14). Posterior localization of nos is
blocked by all mutations that abrogate osk localization;
also, the functions of osk, vas, and
tud are required for nos localization.
The nos 3' UTR is 842 nt long. Deletion analysis suggests that full phenotypic rescue of the severe nosBN mutant allele can be conferred by a nos transgene bearing only nt 1-184 of the 3' UTR (7) . A deletion of nt 97-403 of the nos 3' UTR in a reporter gene construct abrogates early oocyte accumulation, but retains significant posterior localization ability (66) . This suggests that for nos, like osk, localization to the early oocyte is not necessary for eventual posterior accumulation. Posterior localization of nos RNA is directed by multiple redundant elements in its 3' UTR (66) .
As for osk, localization of nos RNA is closely associated with translational control. In fact, it has been argued that localization of nos RNA is functionally redundant, at least for embryonic development, and that only the translational control mechanisms are essential (7) . The translational control element (TCE) has been mapped to region 1-184 of the 3' UTR 7-9) . This region is sufficient to repress translation of unlocalized RNA, activate translation in the pole plasm, and localize the RNA to the pole plasm, leading to production of a posterior-anterior protein gradient of a reporter protein 7, 8) . The TCE itself is composed of two tandem redundant sequences. The central region of each half-TCE can fold a hairpin structure with the pentanucleotide CUGGC in the loop; that particular pentamer is essential for TCE function. The stem-loop structure is also required for binding of the 135 kDa Smaug protein, which has been implicated in translational repression of nos (9) . The molecular nature of Smaug has not been reported, nor is it clear how Smaug-mediated translational repression is ultimately alleviated.
cyclin B, a late-localizing posterior RNA
The cyclin B RNA localizes to the early oocyte and to
the posterior pole of the late oocyte with kinetics very similar to
those of nos RNA 65, 67)
. Posterior
localization of cyclin B RNA requires sequences between nt
347-441 and 480-567 of the 773 nt 3' UTR (68)
. An injected
RNA encoding an epitope-tagged cyclin B fused to the cyclin
B 3' UTR is incorporated into pole cells, but is translationally
repressed through approximately 8 h of embryogenesis when the pole
cells are not dividing. Deletion of a 39 nt region of the 3' UTR (nt
441-480) abolishes translational repression (68)
, but a
minimal sequence that confers translational repression has not been
identified. It has been noticed that the CUGGC pentamer involved in
nos localization and translational repression is present
twice in the cyclin B 3' UTR (at nt 235-239 and 417-421),
perhaps suggesting some commonality of regulation of these two mRNAs
(7)
.
orb, localization to the early oocyte and later to the
anterior pole
orb RNA localizes to the oocyte as early as region 2A
of the germarium. Like osk RNA, it is enriched in the
posterior of early oocytes, but becomes enriched at the anterior during
stages 7 and 8. Unlike osk, orb RNA does not move
to the posterior again; rather, it remains concentrated at the anterior
pole until stage 10, when no localization is observed
(69)
. Anterior localization of orb is abrogated
in Bic-Dmom oocytes (49)
.
orb has a long 1212 nt 3' UTR, but the segment between nt
330 and 610 is sufficient to confer a wild-type localization pattern
(70)
. The nonoverlapping fragments 0-425 or 425-815 both
promote localization to the oocyte (but not to the anterior),
suggesting the presence of redundant elements for the first stage of
RNA sorting. No trans-acting factors involved in targeting
or regulating translation of orb have been identified.
fs(1)
K10, localization to the
early oocyte and later to the anterior pole
The localization pattern of
fs(1)
K10 RNA during oogenesis is
very similar to that of orb and, like orb,
Bic-D is required for its anterior accumulation
(49)
. Analysis of the extremely long 1451 nt 3' UTR
revealed a single 44 nt stem-loop structure (termed the TLS, located
from nt 731-774) that is sufficient for correct localization of
fs(1)
K10 RNA (71)
. A
similar stem-loop structure can be derived from a segment of the
orb 3' UTR, but that segment is located outside the minimal
region able to confer normal localization 70, 71)
.
Despite very different structures in the 3' UTR which are essential for
oocyte targeting, when fs(1)
K10,
osk, and bcd transgenes are expressed from the
same promoter, the kinetics of their localization through stage 8 are
essentially identical (72)
. In this study, a rate of 1.1
µm/min was calculated for transport of these RNAs from the nurse
cells to the oocyte during stage 6.
grk, close association with the oocyte nucleus
grk RNA accumulates in the oocyte from region 2B
of the germarium, and through stage 7 its distribution is very similar
to that described above for osk and orb. In
stages 8 and 9, when the oocyte nucleus migrates to the anterodorsal
corner of the oocyte, grk RNA becomes localized to the
exterior surface of the anterodorsal corner of the oocyte nucleus
(20)
. It remains concentrated there beyond late stage 10.
The activities of at least four
genes—fs(1)
K10, squid, spir, and
capu—are required for efficient dorsal accumulation.
Although the similarities between the early localization of
grk and other oocyte-targeted RNAs suggested a common
mechanism (20)
, recent observations are more consistent
with grk targeting proceeding independently of others such
as osk and orb. For instance, grk RNA
is still efficiently targeted to the early oocyte (but not to the
posterior) in vas-null egg chambers, a mutation that largely
abrogates oocyte-specific accumulation of osk and
orb (73)
. Like many localized RNAs,
grk is translationally regulated; the activity of
vas is required for efficient grk translation
73-75)
. Translational control of grk may also
involve Bru, as the grk 3' UTR possesses BREs that bind Bru
in vitro, and Bru colocalizes with grk in
developing oocytes 54, 55)
.
yem-alpha, 3' UTR-independent localization to the early
oocyte
The yem-alpha transcript, which encodes a
predicted DNA binding protein, localizes to the oocyte in early
oogenesis, and from there to the anterior pole, in a pattern similar to
that of orb and fs(1)
K10.
A recent study to map cis-acting localization elements for
yem-alpha gave the surprising result that a reporter gene
construct that contains a segment of genomic DNA including 722 bp of 5'
upstream promoter sequence, the entire yem-alpha 5' UTR, and
part of the coding region of the gene up to a StyI
restriction site within the third exon, fused to lacZ and
the SV40 3' UTR, is correctly localized (76)
. This
indicates that, for yem-alpha RNA, the 3' UTR is dispensable
for oocyte localization. Translation of yem-alpha, at least
from the usual AUG initiator codon, is not essential for localization,
as mutation of the initiator codon to UUG in the above construct does
not abrogate localization. However, the 5' UTR alone is not sufficient
to target LacZ in such constructs, suggesting that portions of the
coding sequence are at least also required. Despite the unique nature
of the cis-acting elements required for yem-alpha
localization, like other oocyte-localized RNAs its transport is
disrupted by microtubule inhibitors and by mutations such as
Bic-D and egalitarian (egl), which
disrupt oocyte differentiation.
INVOLVEMENT OF THE CYTOSKELETON IN RNA SORTING
Shortly after formation of the 16 cell germ line cyst in region 2A of the germarium, a microtubule organizing center (MTOC) is established in one of the four-ring canal cells, which in subsequent stages of development becomes the oocyte (77) . The MTOC remains at the posterior of the oocyte through stages 6 and 7. Feeding various microtubule assembly inhibitors to adult female flies disrupts microtubule organization and results in the formation of egg chambers that lack an oocyte and contain 16 nurse cells 77, 78) . Various mRNAs that accumulate in the early oocyte, such as osk, Bic-D, and cyclin-B, fail to do so after 12 h of more of colchicine treatment (77) . Mutations in two genes that abrogate oocyte differentiation—egl and Bic-D—also disrupt the organization of microtubules (77) . These results support a model implicating the microtubule cytoskeleton specifically in localizing RNAs essential for oocyte differentiation to the early oocyte.
Similar arguments support a role for the microtubule cytoskeleton in RNA sorting in mid-oogenesis. At stages 6 and 7 of oogenesis, a signal from the posterior follicle cells causes a reorganization of the microtubule cytoskeleton (79) . The posterior MTOC is inactivated, and microtubules reassort into an anterior to posterior cortical gradient in which the minus ends are at the anterior and the plus ends are at the posterior (80) . Protein kinase A (PKA) -mediated signaling and signaling mediated by the Notch/Delta pathway are involved in this process 81-83) . Disassembly of the posterior MTOC also requires mago activity 50, 84) . The directionality of the microtubule cytoskeleton at these stages has been inferred from observations that a plus end-directed kinesin heavy chain::LacZ fusion protein (Khc::LacZ) is localized to the posterior pole of the oocyte and a minus end-directed Nod::LacZ fusion protein localizes anteriorly (85) . As treatment of egg chambers with tubulin-depolymerizing drugs blocks sorting of osk and bcd mRNAs 86, 87) , microtubules have been implicated as being responsible for localizing these RNAs beginning at stages 6 and 7. Supporting this model are observations that microtubule organization is disrupted in mutant oocytes defective for Egfr, Notch, or PKA signaling or in mutants of the spindle group; in all these cases, Khc::LacZ localizes to the center of the oocyte rather than the posterior 16-18, 81, 87) . In all such oocytes, osk RNA, like Khc::LacZ, accumulates at the center of the oocyte, and bcd RNA accumulates at both poles. Recently, a more direct means of visualizing microtubules has been developed by using a transgene expressing a fusion of the bovine microtubule binding protein Tau and GFP (50) . Tau-GFP reveals similar patterns of microtubules in developing oocytes to those described above, but this marker is detectable earlier than Khc::LacZ or Nod::LacZ and can be used to examine living tissue. Another kinesin-like-protein, Klp38B, has been implicated genetically as possibly involved in pole plasm formation at the posterior of the oocyte, although the pattern of distribution of this protein in oocytes or embryos has not been determined (88) .
Inconsistent with a simple model of plus end-directed, microtubule-dependent transport for targeting of RNAs to the oocyte posterior is that a dynein heavy chain (Dhc64C), which is minus end directed, localizes to the posterior pole (89) . However, though mutants affecting Dhc64C implicate it in oocyte differentiation, an allelic combination that results in mislocalization of Dhc64C to the anterior pole has no detectable effect on posterior accumulation of osk RNA (14) . It is possible that not all Dhc64C is absent from the posterior pole in these oocytes, however.
Anterior localization of bcd RNA requires Exu, and a detailed analysis using a GFP-Exu fusion transgene indicates that GFP-Exu accumulates in particles whose distribution in mid-oogenesis is very similar to that of bcd RNA (90) . These particles are ultimately targeted to the anterior cortex of the oocyte, as is bcd RNA, and their movement is microtubule dependent, as is that of bcd RNA, suggesting that the GFP-Exu particles may represent transport RNPs containing bcd RNA (91) . These Exu-containing particles are probably different from the Stau-bcd-containing particles described in an earlier section, as Exu and Stau are involved in different temporal aspects of bcd RNA localization. Localization of the GFP-Exu particles proceeds through three distinct phases: assembly into particles that are located around the nurse cell nuclei, clustering in the ring canals, and movement to the anterior cortex of the oocyte. Time-lapse imaging in living tissue in the presence or absence of cytoskeleton destabilizing drugs indicated that transport of GFP-Exu particles within the nurse cell cytoplasm or within the oocyte depends on an intact microtubule cytoskeleton, but transport through the ring canals was not significantly affected either by Colcemid or cytochalasin D (91) . The conclusion that microtubules are required for GFP-Exu particles to move within cells, but not between them, is consistent with a second study which found that exu function is first required after microtubule tracks connecting the nurse cells and oocyte are no longer readily apparent (35) .
Clear genetic evidence implicates F-actin, along with microtubules, in localizing osk RNA to the posterior pole of the oocyte. The earliest indication that microfilaments have a role in osk localization came from the isolation of several mutant alleles in the gene encoding cytoskeletal Tm1 from a screen for maternal effect mutations affecting germ cell formation 47, 48) . Similarly, mutations in the gene encoding the actin binding protein profilin result in a failure to localize osk RNA to the posterior pole, but have no effect on bcd RNA localization (92) . Experiments involving injection of fluorescently labeled osk RNA into oocytes also suggest that its localization involves microtubule-dependent and microtubule-independent mechanisms (93) . Based on phenotypic similarities and on an interaction in the yeast two-hybrid system, a link has been suggested between the formin-related Capu protein and profilin (92) . Mutations in capu lead to premature cytoplasmic streaming in the developing oocyte and a failure to accumulate RNAs and proteins at the posterior pole and grk RNA at the oocyte nucleus 43, 44, 92) ; neither profilin nor the actin cytoskeleton has been implicated in this latter process.
The phenotype of maelstrom (mael) mutant oocytes have been linked with a potential function for this gene product in microtubule organization (94) , but the detailed nature of any such role is at this point unclear. Many oocyte-localized RNAs, including grk, osk, and bcd, accumulate in the posterior cytoplasm of the previtellogenic oocyte from stage 3 onward. Posterior accumulation of these RNAs within the oocyte, but not localization to the oocyte, is disrupted in mael mutants. The mael phenotype also affects microtubules, since in later stages of oogenesis the organization of the microtubule cytoskeleton within the oocyte is disrupted in mael mutants: by stage 7 microtubules are already bundled around the cortex, as occurs in wild-type oocytes in late stage 10. This correlates with premature cytoplasmic streaming during stages 8 and 9 in mael oocytes. A more specific role in RNA localization has been suggested for the Mago protein, as in mago mutants, osk remains associated with the microtubules even through stage 10B (50) . This is suggestive of a role for Mago in releasing osk RNA from the microtubule cytoskeleton.
OTHER TYPES OF RNA LOCALIZATION
Spatially restricted protection of specific mRNAs from degradation
at the blastoderm stage
Many, perhaps most, maternal mRNAs are degraded at the stage of
embryonic development when extensive transcription from the embryonic
genome commences, often termed the maternal/zygotic transition
95, 96)
. Hsp83 mRNA accumulates in the
posterior pole plasm through a mechanism that protects it from
degradation only at the posterior pole (97)
. Through
nuclear cycle 6, Hsp83 mRNA appears uniformly distributed
throughout the embryo; subsequently it becomes progressively more
restricted to the posterior, so that at the syncytial blastoderm stage
it is detectable only in the pole cells and immediately beneath them.
Quantitation of in situ hybridization data indicated that the amount of
Hsp83 mRNA remains constant in the posterior-most 10% of
the embryo between nuclear cycles 2/3 and 7/8, but decreases by 3- to
10-fold in the remaining 90% of the embryo. This supports a mechanism
of spatially restricted protection from degradation for generating the
asymmetric distribution of Hsp83 mRNA. Despite this novel
mechanism, posterior accumulation of Hsp83 depends on the
functions of the pole plasm assembly pathway, as it is abrogated by
capu, spir, osk, stau, vas, and tud mutations.
Degradation/protection mechanisms may sometimes be coupled with
translational control. cad mRNA is translationally repressed
by Bcd; thus, the initially uniformly distributed cad mRNA
is translated in a posterior-to-anterior gradient in early embryos
10, 11)
. At the syncytial blastoderm stage (nuclear
cycles 12 and 13), in situ hybridizations using tritiated probes show a
relatively higher concentration of cad mRNA in the posterior
quarter of the embryo where it is translated; this asymmetric
distribution results from a reduction of cad RNA from the
anterior end rather than from an increase of cad RNA at the
posterior (98)
. Thus, active translation of cad
mRNA is correlated with increased stability.
bcd mRNA, although localized to the anterior pole, is rapidly degraded after the maternal/zygotic transition. A recent study (99) has identified a 43 nt region of the bcd 3' UTR (nt 1-43) as necessary for this degradation and sufficient to confer instability onto a highly stable mRNA, rpA1. bcd mRNA is stable for up to 12 days in retained or laid, unfertilized eggs, indicating that degradation, which occurs only after the first 2 h of embryonic development, requires fertilization and the initial stages of embryonic development to proceed.
Transport of mitochondrial ribosomal RNA from mitochondria to
neighboring polar granules?
Among the RNAs that accumulate at the posterior pole of
cleavage-stage embryos is mitochondrial large ribosomal RNA (mtlrRNA).
Although mitochondria themselves are abundant in the pole plasm, in
situ hybridizations at the ultrastructural level indicate that mtlrRNA
is present extramitochondrially in peripheral regions of the polar
granules (30)
. As mtlrRNA is encoded in the mitochondrial
genome, its presence outside mitochondria implies that a transport
mechanism must exist for its export. Injection of targeted ribozymes
directed against mtlrRNA into the pole plasm of cleavage-stage embryos
greatly reduces their ability to form pole cells (100)
.
This result, together with the observation that mitochondrial small
ribosomal RNA accumulates in the pole plasm in a fashion similar to
mtlrRNA (101)
, suggests that pole cell specification may
involve mechanisms that use components of the mitochondrial
translational apparatus.
Accumulation of these RNAs in the pole plasm requires the activities of genes such as osk, vas, and tud (95) , and mtlrRNA also accumulates in the ectopic pole plasm formed at the anterior pole of embryos produced by osk-bcd 3' UTR females (102) . Although little is understood about the mechanism of transport of mtlrRNA, it has been proposed that Tud might operate in this process because, in the pole plasm, Tud is present both in mitochondria and polar granules 28, 30) .
Apical localization of pair-rule gene transcripts in syncytial
blastoderm embryos
Initial nuclear divisions in Drosophila are not coupled
to cell divisions, thus the early embryo is a large multinucleate cell.
As preblastoderm development progresses, the nuclei migrate to the
periphery of the embryo. The stage of development during which the
nuclei are positioned peripherally but cell membranes separating the
nuclei have not yet completely formed, is termed the syncytial
blastoderm stage. This is when, in response to the Bcd, Hb, and Cad
gradients, zygotic transcription of genes critical for establishing
position along the anterior-posterior axis commences.
Among these genes are the pair-rule genes, whose transcripts accumulate in seven transverse rings (stripes when projected on a single plane) along the anterior-posterior axis of the syncytial blastoderm embryo. Transcripts from three different pair-rule genes—hairy (h), fushi tarazu (ftz), and even-skipped (eve)—accumulate specifically in the apical cytoplasm (103) . Analysis of various chimeric transcripts has limited the extent of essential cis-acting localization elements to within the coding region or 3' UTR for ftz, within nt 248-832 of the 3' UTR for h, and within nt 61-162 of the short 3' UTR for eve. The eve 3' UTR fragment is able to direct apical localization of an unrelated reporter transcript.
What is accomplished by localization of pair-rule transcripts? Cell membranes form between the blastoderm nuclei starting from the apical side, so localization of RNA to the apical side would inhibit diffusion of these RNAs and their protein products to the cytoplasm surrounding neighboring nuclei (103) . However, it has not yet been demonstrated that apical localization of pair-rule transcripts is essential for their function in vivo. An analysis of ftz RNA distribution in aneuploid embryos completely lacking each of the five major chromosome arms indicates that the necessary trans-acting factors for apical localization are maternally encoded (104) . Furthermore, embryos lacking chromosome arm 3L have multiple layers of nuclei. In this case, ftz RNA localizes apically of both internal and superficial nuclei, supporting a mechanism of directed nuclear export.
MATTERS OF CONTROVERSY
How important is RNA localization in the germ line?
Many RNAs ultimately destined for different localization pathways,
such as grk, fs(1)
K10, osk, and
bcd, first accumulate in the oocyte during germarial or
previtellarial development. The striking nature of this early
accumulation of RNAs into the oocyte is suggestive of an essential
function for this pathway. Moreover, mutations in several genes
encoding oocyte-localized RNAs such as Bic-D, egl, orb, and
grk implicate their products as essential for germarial and
previtellarial development. Recessive Bic-D mutations that
block the accumulation of Bic-D RNA and protein into one of
the four-ring-canal cells abolish oocyte determination
(105)
, as do egl mutations (13)
. A
severe allele of orb (orbdec) blocks
oogenesis during the stage of cystoblast mitosis (106)
.
Accumulation of Grk at the posterior of the previtellogenic oocyte is
necessary for specification of posterior follicle cells, subsequent
polarization of the microtubule cytoskeleton, and determination of the
anterior-posterior axis within the oocyte. In mael mutants,
grk RNA within the early oocyte is usually mislocalized to
the anterior or in lateral regions, grk translation is
reduced, and grk-dependent processes are blocked, suggesting
that localization of grk RNA is essential (94)
.
However, for many other oocyte-localized mRNAs—for instance osk, bcd, fs(1) K10, etc.—available mutations do not implicate their products as being required for previtellogenic oogenesis. Even for the RNAs mentioned above, it is unclear to what extent protein targeting depends on RNA localization since, for example, Orb protein is still efficiently targeted to vas-null oocytes that accumulate orb RNA very poorly (73) . Furthermore, fs(1) K10 transgenes that produce uniformly distributed or posteriorly localized RNA still produce K10 protein, which localizes to the oocyte nucleus, and restore fertility to fs(1) K10 mutants (107) . These results clearly indicate that at least some RNA localization events are functionally redundant or unnecessary. It is noteworthy that 4 of 46 random cDNAs chosen from an ovarian library accumulate specifically in the previtellogenic oocyte (108) .
The relative importance of RNA localization and translational control in later oogenesis and cleavage-stage embryos also remains unclear, although here the evidence seems convincing that translational activation of at least osk and nos RNAs requires their localization to the pole plasm. However, at least for nos, translational control elements and localization signals do not appear to be separable; because of this, it has been suggested that formation of the Nos protein gradient is accomplished primarily by translational control and that posterior accumulation of nos RNA comes about as a secondary consequence of this translational control (7) .
PROSPECTS AND PREDICTIONS
An important area requiring more investigation concerns the relative roles of the actin and tubulin cytoskeletons in localizing RNAs. Although there is no evidence so far to suggest that anything but the microtubule network is required for localization of bcd RNA, it has become increasingly clear that both microfilaments and microtubules are involved for localization of osk RNA to the posterior. A key recent finding that is likely to contribute to our understanding of the interplay between microfilaments and microtubules in RNA localization is a report that a protein homologous to the class VI unconventional myosin CLIP-170 accumulates at the posterior pole of Drosophila embryos (109) . Further genetic and molecular analysis of CLIP-170 will be important for improving our understanding of RNA localization mechanisms to the posterior pole.
Little is known about the mechanism of localizing grk RNA to the early oocyte and, later, to the anterodorsal corner of the oocyte. The vas-null mutation does not affect oocyte targeting of grk, unlike most other oocyte-localized RNAs, indicating that initial accumulation of grk in the oocyte proceeds via an independent mechanism (73) . However, mael mutations affect intra-oocyte distribution of grk in a fashion similar to that of osk and bcd, which suggests that once grk RNA is deposited in the oocyte, it is a substrate for targeting mechanisms common to multiple RNAs (94) . A thorough identification and analysis of cis- and trans-acting factors required to accomplish correct grk RNA accumulation is essential in order to shed light on these issues.
Much progress is likely to be made soon concerning the means by which RNAs to be targeted are loaded onto the microtubule cytoskeleton for transport. Recent work with Stau has implicated it as a critical molecule that binds specific RNAs, including bcd, and assembles them into particles that are capable of microtubule-mediated movement 40, 42) . Yet the exact nature of these particles remains unclear, as does the identity of the component(s) through which they associate with tubulin. Similarly, the molecular composition of Exu-containing particles is unknown. Bic-D protein has been proposed as an intermediate involved in recruiting RNAs and/or proteins destined for targeting to microtubules; analysis of Bic-D mutations implicates it in the localization of various RNAs to the anterior and posterior of the oocyte 46, 110) , but not bcd specifically. Genetic and molecular interaction screens involving Stau, Exu, Bic-D, and (potentially) other similar candidate proteins are likely to provide important insights on this question in the near future.
Finally, at least with respect to osk and nos, much insight has been gained concerning specific translational control. Specific translational repressors of unlocalized RNA have been identified for both osk and nos. Candidate genes, such as aub for osk and vas for grk, have also been identified whose functions may be essential for translational activation. Relevant cis-acting sequences have been mapped on both RNAs; in the case of osk, a polypeptide that potentially acts as a translational derepressor, has been identified. We may expect to soon learn much more about how these proteins interact with each other, their target RNAs, and the translational machinery to accomplish their functions in regulating gene expression.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I am grateful to Beat Suter and an anonymous reviewer for helpful comments on the manuscript, and to the Medical Research Council of Canada for an MRC Scientist award.
FOOTNOTES
1 Correspondence: Department of Biology, McGill University, 1205 Avenue Docteur Penfield, Montréal, Québec, Canada H3A 1B1. E-mail: Paul_Lasko{at}maclan.mcgill.ca 
2 Abbreviations: aub, aubergine;
Bcd, Bicoid; Bic-D, Bicaudal-D, BRE, Bru response
element; Bru, Bruno; Cad, Caudal; capu,
cappuccino, chic, chickadee, Dhc64C, a
dynein heavy chain; egl, egalitarian;
exu, exuperantia; Exu, Exuperantia; Grk, Gurken;
Hb, Hunchback; Long (or Short) Osk, two different isoforms of Osk
protein; mael, maelstrom; mago,
mago nashi; mtlr, mitochondrial large ribosomal; MTOC,
microtubule organizing center; osk, oskar;
osk, Oskar; PKA, protein kinase A; spire, spir;
Stau, Staufen; stau, staufen; TCE, translational
control element; Tm1, Tropomyosin-1, Tud, Tudor;
tud, tudor; vas, vasa.
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